Institutio Oratoria |
Translator: Harold Edgeworth Butler
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| 305 |
De Menandro loquor , nec tamen excluserim alios . Nam Latini quoque auctores adferent utilitatis aliquid . Sed pueris , quae maxime ingenium alant atque animum augeant , praelegenda ; ceteris , quae ad eruditionem modo pertinent , longa aetas spatium dabit . Multum autem veteres etiam Latini conferunt , ( quanquam plerique plus ingenio quam arte valuerunt ) in primis copiam verborum , quorum in tragoediis gravitas , in comoediis elegantia et quidam velut ἀττικισμός inveniri potest .
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But the subjects selected for lectures to boys should be those which will enlarge the mind and provide the greatest nourishment to the intellect. Life is quite long enough for the subsequent study of those other subjects which are concerned with matters of interest solely to learned men. But even the old Latin poets may be of great value, in spite of the fact that their strength lies in their natural talent rather than in their art: above all they will contribute richness of vocabulary: for the vocabulary of the tragedians is full of dignity, while in that of the comedians there is a certain elegance and Attic grace. |
| 306 |
Oeconomia quoque in iis diligentior quam in plerisque novorum erit , qui omnium operum solam virtutem sententias putaverunt . Sanctitas certe et , ut sic dicam , virilitas ab iis petenda est , quando nos in omnia deliciarum vitia dicendi quoque ratione defluximus .
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They are, too, more careful about dramatic structure than the majority of moderns, who regard epigram as the sole merit of every kind of literary work. For purity at any rate and manliness, if I may say so, we must certainly go to these writers, since to-day even our style of speaking is infected with all the faults of modern decadence. |
| 307 |
Denique credamus summis oratoribus , qui veterum poemata vel ad fidem causarum vel ad ornamentum eloquentiae adsumunt .
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Finally we may derive confidence from the practice of the greatest orators of drawing upon the early poets to support their arguments or adorn their eloquence. |
| 308 |
Nam praecipue quidem apud Ciceronem frequenter tamen apud Asinium etiam et ceteros , qui sunt proximi , videmus Enni , Acci , Pacuvi , Lucili , Terenti , Caecili et aliorum inseri versus summa non eruditionis modo gratia sed etiam iucunditatis , cum poeticis voluptatibus aures a forensi asperitate respirent .
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For we find, more especially in the pages of Cicero, but frequently in Asinius and other orators of that period, quotations from Ennius, Accius, Pacuvius, Lucilius, Terence, Caecilius and others, inserted not merely to show the speaker's learning, but to please his hearers as well, since the charms of poetry provide a pleasant relief from the severity of forensic eloquence. |
| 309 |
Quibus accedit non mediocris utilitas , cum sententiis eorum velut quibusdam testimoniis quae proposuere confirment . Verum priora illa ad pueros magis , haec sequentia ad robustiores pertinebunt , cum grammatices amor et usus lectionis non scholarum temporibus , sed vitae spatio terminentur .
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Such quotations have the additional advantage of helping the speaker's case, for the orator makes use of the sentiments expressed by the poet as evidence in support of his own statements. But while my earlier remarks have special application to the education of boys, those which I have just made apply rather to persons of riper years; for the love of letters and the value of reading are not confined to one's schooldays, but end only with life. |
| 310 |
In praelegendo grammaticus et illa quidem minora praestare debebit , ut partes orationis reddi sibi soluto versu desideret et pedum proprietates , quae adeo debent esse notae in carminibus , ut etiam in oratoria compositione desiderentur . Deprehendat , quae barbara , quae impropria , quae contra leges loquendi sint posita ;
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In lecturing the teacher of literature must give attention to minor points as well: he will ask his class after analysing a verse to give him the parts of speech and the peculiar features of the feet which it contains: these latter should be so familiar in poetry as to make their presence desired even in the prose of oratory. He will point out what words are barbarous, what improperly used, and what are contrary to the laws of language. |
| 311 |
non ut ex iis utique improbentur poetae ( quibus , quia plerumque servire metro coguntur , adeo ignoscitur , ut vitia ipsa allis in carmine appellationibus nominentur ; metaplasmos enim et schematismos et schemata , ut dixi , vocamus , et laudem virtutis necessitati damus ) , sed ut commoneat artificialium et memoriam agitet .
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He will not do this by way of censuring the poets for such peculiarities, for poets are usually the servants of their metres and are allowed such licence that faults are given other names when they occur in poetry: for we style them metaplasms, schematisms and schemata, as I have said, and make a virtue of necessity. Their aim will rather be to familiarise the pupil with the artifices of style and to stimulate his memory. |
| 312 |
Id quoque inter prima rudimenta non inutile demonstrare , quot quaeque verba modis intelligenda sint . Circa glossemata etiam , id est voces minus usitatas , non ultima eius professionis diligentia est .
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Further in the elementary stages of such instruction it will not be unprofitable to show the different meanings which may be given to each word. With regard to glossemala, that is to say words not in common use, the teacher must exercise no ordinary diligence, |
| 313 |
Enimvero iam maiore cura doceat tropos omnes , quibus praecipue non poema modo sed etiam oratio ornatur ; schemata utraque , id est figuras , quaeque λέξεως quaeque διανοίας vocantur , quorum ego sicut troporum tractatum in eum locum differo , quo mihi de ornatu orationis dicendum erit .
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while still greater care is required in teaching all the tropes which are employed for the adornment more especially of poetry, but of oratory as well, and in making his class acquainted with the two sorts of schemata or figures known as figures of speech and figures of thought. I shall however postpone discussion of tropes and figures till I come to deal with the various ornaments of style. |
| 314 |
Praecipue vero illa infigat animis , quae in oeconomia virtus , quae in decore rerum , quid personae cuique convenerit , quid in sensibus laudandum , quid in verbis , ubi copia probabilis , ubi modus .
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Above all he will impress upon their minds the value of proper arrangement, and of graceful treatment of the matter in hand: he will show what is appropriate to the various characters, what is praiseworthy in the thoughts or words, where copious diction is to be commended and where restraint. |
| 315 |
His accedet enarratio historiarum , diligens quidem illa non tamen usque ad supervacuum laborem occupata . Nam receptas aut certe claris auctoribus memoratas exposuisse satis est . Persequi quidem , quid quis unquam vel contemptissimorum hominum dixerit , aut nimiae miseriae aut inanis iactantiae est et detinet atque obruit ingenia melius aliis uacatura .
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In addition to this he will explain the various stories that occur: this must be done with care, but should not be encumbered with superfluous detail. For it is sufficient to set forth the version which is generally received or at any rate rests upon good authority. But to ferret out everything that has ever been said on the subject even by the most worthless of writers is a sign of tiresome pedantry or empty ostentation, and results in delaying and swamping the mind when it would be better employed on other themes. |
| 316 |
Nam qui omnes etiam indignas lectione scidas excutit , anilibus quoque fabulis accommodare operam potest . Atqui pleni sunt huiusmodi impedimentis grammaticorum commentarii , vix ipsis qui composuerunt satis noti .
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The man who pores over every page even though it be wholly unworthy of reading, is capable of devoting his attention to the investigation of old wives' tales. And yet the commentaries of teachers of literature are full of such encumbrances to learning and strangely unfamiliar to their own authors. |
| 317 |
Nam Didymo , quo nemo plura scripsit , accidisse compertum est , ut , cum historiae cuidam tanquam vanae repugnaret , ipsius proferretur liber , qui eam continebat .
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It is, for instance, recorded that Didymus, who was unsurpassed for the number of books which he wrote, on one occasion objected to some story as being absurd, whereupon one of his own books was produced which contained the story in question. |
| 318 |
Quod evenit praecipue in fabulosis usque ad deridicula quaedam , quaedam etiam pudenda ; unde improbissimo cuique pleraque fingendi licentia est , adeo ut de libris totis et auctoribus , ut succurrit , mentiantur tuto , quia inveniri qui nunquam fuere non possunt : nam in notioribus frequentissime deprehenduntur a curiosis . Ex quo mihi inter virtutes grammatici habebitur aliqua nescire .
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Such abuses occur chiefly in connexion with fabulous stories and are sometimes carried to ludicrous or even scandalous extremes: for in such cases the more unscrupulous commentator has such full scope for invention, that he can tell lies to his heart's content about whole books and authors without fear of detection: for what never existed can obviously never be found, whereas if the subject is familiar the careful investigator will often detect the fraud. Consequently I shall count it a merit in a teacher of literature that there should be some things which he does not know. |
| 319 |
Et finitae quidem sunt partes duae , quas haec professio pollicetur , id est ratio loquendi et enarratio auctorum , quarum illam methodicen hanc historicen vocant . Adiiciamus tamen eorum curae quaedam dicendi primordia , quibus aetates nondum rhetorem capientes instituant .
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IX. I have now finished with two of the departments, with which teachers of literature profess to deal, namely the art of speaking correctly and the interpretation of authors; the former they call nethodicē, the latter historiē We must however add to their activities instruction in certain rudiments of oratory for the benefit of those who are not yet ripe for the schools of rhetoric. |
| 320 |
Igitur Aesopi fabellas , quae fabulis nutricularum proxime succedunt , narrare sermone puro et nihil se supra modum extollente , deinde eandem gracilitatem stilo exigere condiscant ; versus primo solvere , mox mutatis verbis interpretari , tum paraphrasi audacius vertere , qua et breviare quaedam et exornare salvo modo poetae sensu permittitur .
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Their pupils should learn to paraphrase Aesop's fables, the natural successors of the fairy stories of the nursery, in simple and restrained language and subsequently to set down this paraphrase in writing with the same simplicity of style: they should begin by analysing each verse, then give its meaning in different language, and finally proceed to a freer paraphrase in which they will be permitted now to abridge and now to embellish the original, so far as this may be done without losing the poet's meaning. |
| 321 |
Quod opus etiam consummatis professoribus difficile qui commode tractaverit , cuicunque discendo sufficiet . Sententiae quoque et chriae et ethologiae subiectis dictorum rationibus apud grammaticos scribantur , quia initium ex lectione ducunt ; quorum omnium similis est ratio , forma diversa , quia sententia universalis est vox , ethologia personis continetur .
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This is no easy task even for the expert instructor, and the pupil who handles it successfully will be capable of learning everything. He should also be set to write aphorisms, moral essays (chriae ) and delineations of character (ethologiae ), of which the teacher will first give the general scheme, since such themes will be drawn from their reading. In all of these exercises the general idea is the same, but the form differs: aphorisms are general propositions, while ethologiae are concerned with persons |
| 322 |
Chriarum plura genera traduntur : unum simile sententiae , quod est positum in voce simplici , Dixit ille , aut , Dicere solebat ; alterum , quod est in respondendo , Interrogatus ille , vel , cum hoc ei dictum esset , respondit ; tertium huic non dissimile , cum quis dixisset aliquid , vel fecisset .
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. Of moral essays there are various forms: some are akin to aphorisms and commence with a simple statement "he said" or "he used to say" : others give the answer to a question and begin "on being asked" or "in answer to this he replied," while a third and not dissimilar type begins, "when someone has said or done something." Some hold that a moral essay may take some action as its text; |
| 323 |
Etiam in ipsorum factis esse chriam putant , ut Crates , cum indoctum puerum vidisset , paedagogum eius percussit ; et aliud paene par ei , quod tamen eodem nomine appellare non audent sed dicunt χρειῶδες , ut Milo , quem vitulum adsueuerat ferre , taurum ferebat . In his omnibus et declinatio per eosdem ducitur casus , et tam factorum quam dictorum ratio est .
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take for example the statement " Crates on seeing an ill-educated boy, beat his paedagogus," or a very similar example which they do not venture actually to propose as a theme for a moral essay, but content themselves with saying that it is of the nature of such a theme, namely " Milo, having accustomed himself to carrying a calf every day, ended by carrying it when grown to a bull. " All these instances are couched in the same grammatical form and deeds no less than sayings may be presented for treatment. |
| 324 |
Narratiunculas a poetis celebratas notitiae causa non eloquentiae tractandas puto . Cetera maioris operis ac spiritus Latini rhetores relinquendo necessaria grammaticis fecerunt ; Graeci magis operum suorum et onera et modum norunt .
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Short stories from the poets should in my opinion be handled not with a view to style but as a means of increasing knowledge. Other more serious and ambitious tasks have been also imposed on teachers of literature by the fact that Latin rhetoricians will have nothing to do with them: Greek rhetoricians have a better comprehension of the extent and nature of the tasks placed on their shoulders. |
| 325 |
Haec de Grammatice , quam brevissime potui , non ut omnia dicerem sectatus , quod infinitum erat , sed ut maxime necessaria ; nunc de ceteris artibus , quibus instituendos , priusquam rhetori tradantur , pueros existimo , strictim subiungam , ut efficiatur orbis ille doctrinae , quem Graeci ἐγκύκλιον παιδείαν vocant .
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I have made my remarks on this stage of education as brief as possible, making no attempt to say everything, (for the theme is infinite), but confining myself to the most necessary points. I will now proceed briefly to discuss the remaining arts in which I think boys ought to be instructed before being handed over to the teacher of rhetoric: for it is by such studies that the course of education described by the Greeks as ἐγκύκλιος παιδεία or general education will be brought to its full completion. |
| 326 |
Nam iisdem fere annis aliarum quoque disciplinarum studia ingredienda sunt , quae , quia et ipsae artes sunt et esse perfectae sine orandi scientia possunt nec rursus ad efficiendum oratorem satis valent solae , an sint huic operi necessariae quaeritur .
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For there are other subjects of education which must be studied simultaneously with literature. These being independent studies are capable of completion without a knowledge of oratory, while on the other hand they cannot by themselves produce an orator. The question has consequently been raised as to whether they are necessary for this purpose. |
| 327 |
Nam quid , inquiunt , ad agendam causam dicendamve sententiam pertinet , scire , quemadmodum data linea constitui triangula aequis lateribus possint ? Aut quo melius vel defendet reum vel reget consilia , qui citharae sonos nominibus et spatiis distinxerit ?
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What, say some, has the knowledge of the way to describe an equilateral triangle on a given straight line got to do with pleading in the law-courts or speaking in the senate? Will an acquaintance with the names and intervals of the notes of the lyre help an orator to defend a criminal or direct the policy of his country? |
| 328 |
Enumerent etiam fortasse multos quamlibet utiles foro , qui nec geometren audierint nec musicos nisi hac communi voluptate aurium intelligant . Quibus ego primum hoc respondeo , quod M . Cicero scripto ad Brutum libro frequentius testatur , non eum a nobis institui oratorem , qui sit aut fuerit , sed imaginem quandam concepisse nos animo perfecti illius et nulla parte cessantis .
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They will perhaps produce a long list of orators who are most effective in the courts but have never sat under a geometrician and whose understanding of music is confined to the pleasure which their ears, like those of other men, derive from it. To such critics I reply, and Cicero frequently makes the same remark in his Orator, that I am not describing any orator who actually exists or has existed, but have in my mind's eye an ideal orator, perfect down to the smallest detail. |
| 329 |
Nam et sapientem formantes eum , qui sit futurus consummatus undique et , ut dicunt , mortalis quidam deus , non modo cognitione caelestium vel mortalium putant instruendum , sed per quaedam parva sane , si ipsa demum aestimes , ducunt sicut exquisitas interim ambiguitates ; non quia ceratinae aut crocodilinae possint facere sapientem , sed quia illum ne in minimis quidem oporteat falli .
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For when the philosophers describe the ideal sage who is to be consummate in all knowledge and a very god incarnate, as they say, they would have him receive instruction not merely in the knowledge of things human and divine, but would also lead him through a course of subjects, which in themselves are comparatively trivial, as for instance the elaborate subtleties of formal logic: not that acquaintance with the so called "horn" or "crocodile" problems can make a man wise, but because it is important that he should never trip even in the smallest trifles. |
| 330 |
Similiter oratorem , qui delet esse sapiens , non geometres faciet aut musicus quaeque his alia subiungam , sed hae quoque artes , ut sit consummatus , iuvabunt . Nisi forte antidotus quidem atque alia , quae oculis aut vulneribus medentur , ex multis atque interim contrariis quoque inter se effectibus componi videmus , quorum ex diversis fit una illa mixtura , quae nulli earum similis est , ex quibus constat , sed proprias vires ex omnibus sumit ;
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So too the teacher of geometry, music or other subjects which I would class with these, will not be able to create the perfect orator (who like the philosopher ought to be a wise man), but none the less these arts will assist in his perfection. I may draw a parallel from the use of antidotes and other remedies applied to the eyes or to wounds. We know that these are composed of ingredients which produce many and sometimes contrary effects, but mixed together they make a single compound resembling no one of its component parts, but deriving its peculiar properties from all: |
| 331 |
et nuta animalia mellis illum inimitabilem humanae rationi saporem vario florum ac sucorum genere perficiunt : nos mirabimur , si oratio , qua nihil praestantius homini dedit providentia , pluribus artibus egeat , quae , etiam cum se non ostendunt in dicendo nec proferunt , vim tamen occultam suggerunt et tacitae quoque sentiuntur ? " Fuit aliquis sine iis disertus " :
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so too dumb insects produce honey, whose taste is beyond the skill of man to imitate, from different kinds of flowers and juices. Shall we marvel then, if oratory, the highest gift of providence to man, needs the assistance of many arts, which, although they do not reveal or intrude themselves in actual speaking, supply hidden forces and make their silent presence felt? |
| 332 |
sed ego oratorem volo . " Non multum adiiciunt " : sed aeque non erit totum , cui vel parva deerunt ; et optimum quidem hoc esse conveniet ; cuius etiamsi in arduo spes est , nos tamen praecipiamus omnia , ut saltem plura fiant . Sed cur deficiat animus ? Natura enim perfectum oratorem esse non prohibet , turpiterque desperatur quidquid fieri potest . Atque ego vel iudicio veterum poteram esse contentus .
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"But" it will be urged "men have proved fluent without their aid." Granted, but I am in quest of an orator. "Their contribution is but small." Yes, but we shall never attain completeness, if minor details be lacking. And it will be agreed that though our ideal of perfection may dwell on a height that is hard to gain, it is our duty to teach all we know, that achievement may at least come somewhat nearer the goal. But why should our courage fail? The perfect orator is not contrary to the laws of nature, and it is cowardly to despair of anything that is within the bounds of possibility. For myself I should be ready to accept the verdict of antiquity. |
| 333 |
Nam quis ignorat musicen ( ut de hae primum loquar ) tantum iam illis antiquis temporibus non studii modo verum etiam venerationis habuisse , ut iidem musici et vates et sapientes iudicarentur ( mittam alios ) Orpheus et Linus ; quorum utrumque dis genitum , alterum vero , quia rudes quoque atque agrestes animos admiratione mulceret , non feras modo sed saxa etiam silvasque duxisse posteritatis memoriae traditum est .
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Who is ignorant of the fact that music, of which I will speak first, was in ancient times the object not merely of intense study but of veneration: in fact Orpheus and Linus, to mention no others, were regarded as uniting the roles of musician, poet and philosopher. Both were of divine origin, while the former, because by the marvel of his music he soothed the savage breast, is recorded to have drawn after him not merely beasts of the wild, but rocks and trees. |
| 334 |
Itaque et Timagenes auctor est , omnium in litteris studiorum antiquissimam musicen extitisse , et testimonio sunt clarissimi poetae , apud quos inter regalia convivia laudes heroum ac deorum ad citharam canebantur . lopas vero ille Vergilii nonne canit errantem lunam solisque labores et cetera ? Quibus certe palam confirmat auctor eminentissimus , musicen cum divinarum etiam rerum cognitione esse coniunctam .
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So too Timagenes asserts that music is the oldest of the arts related to literature, a statement which is confirmed by the testimony of the greatest of poets in whose songs we read that the praise of heroes and of gods were sung to the music of the lyre at the feasts of kings. Does not lopas, the Vergilian bard, sing "The wandering moon and labours of the Sun" and the like? whereby the supreme poet manifests most clearly that music is united with the knowledge even of things divine. |
| 335 |
Quod si datur , erit etiam oratori necessaria , siquidem ( ut diximus ) haec quoque pars , quae ab oratoribus relicta a philosophis est occupata , nostri operis fuit , ac sine omnium talium scientia non potest esse perfecta eloquentia .
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If this be admitted, music will be a necessity even for an orator, since those fields of knowledge, which were annexed by philosophy on their abandonment by oratory, once were ours and without the knowledge of all such things there can be no perfect eloquence. |
| 336 |
Atque claros nomine sapientiae viros , nemo dubitaverit , studiosos musices fuisse , cum Pythagoras atque eum secuti acceptam sine dubio antiquitus opinionem vulgaverint , mundum ipsum ratione esse compositum , quam postea sit lyra imitata , nec illa modo contenti dissimilium concordia , quam vocant ἁρμονίαν , sonum quoque iis motibus dederint .
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There can in any case be no doubt that some of those men whose wisdom is a household word have been earnest students of music: Pythagoras for instance and his followers popularised the belief, which they no doubt had received from earlier teachers, that the universe is constructed on the same principles which were afterwards imitated in the construction of the lyre, and not content merely with emphasising that concord of discordant elements which they style harmony attributed a sound to the motions of the celestial bodies. |
| 337 |
Nam Plato , cum in aliis quibusdam tum praecipue in Timaeo , ne intelligi quidem nisi ab iis , qui hanc quoque partem disciplinae diligenter perceperint , potest . De philosophis loquor , quorum fons ipse Socrates iam senex institui lyra non erubescebat ?
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As for Plato, there are certain passages in his works, more especially in the Timaeus, which are quite unintelligible to those who have not studied the theory of music. But why speak only of the philosophers, whose master, Socrates, did not blush to receive instruction in playing the lyre even when far advanced in years? |
| 338 |
Duces maximos et fidibus et tibiis cecinisse traditum et exercitus Lacedaemoniorum musicis accensos modis . Quid autem aliud in nostris legionibus cornua ac tubae faciunt ? quorum concentus quanto est vehementior , tantum Romana in bellis gloria ceteris praestat .
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It is recorded that the greatest generals played on the lyre and the pipe, and that the armies of Sparta were fired to martial ardour by the strains of music. And what else is the function of the horns and trumpets attached to our legions? The louder the concert of their notes, the greater is the glorious supremacy of our arms over all the nations of the earth. |
| 339 |
Non igitur frustra Plato civili viro , quem πολιτικὸν vocat , necessariam musicen credidit . Et eius sectae , quae aliis severissima aliis asperrima videtur , principes in hac fuere sententia , ut existimarent sapientium aliquos nonnullam operam his studiis accommodaturos . Et Lycurgus , durissimarum Lacedaemoniis legum auctor , musices disciplinam probavit .
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It was not therefore without reason that Plato regarded the knowledge of music as necessary to his ideal statesman or politician, as he calls him; while the leaders even of that school, which in other respects is the strictest and most severe of all schools of philosophy, held that the wise man might well devote some of his attention to such studies. Lycurgus himself, the founder of the stern laws of Sparta, approved of the training supplied by music. |
| 340 |
Atque eam natura ipsa videtur ad tolerandos facilius labores velut muneri nobis dedisse , si quidem et remigem cantus hortatur ; nec solum in iis operibus , in quibus plurium conatus praeeunte aliqua iucunda voce conspirat , sed etiam singulorum fatigatio quamlibet se rudi modulatione solatur .
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Indeed nature itself seems to have given music as a boon to men to lighten the strain of labour: even the rower in the galleys is cheered to effort by song. Nor is this function of music confined to cases where the efforts of a number are given union by the sound of some sweet voice that sets the tune, but even solitary workers find solace at their toil in artless song. |
| 341 |
Laudem adhuc dicere artis pulcherrimae videor , nondum eam tamen oratori coniungere . Transeamus igitur id quoque , quod grammatice quondam ac musice iunctae fuerunt ; siquidem Archytas atque Euenus etiam subiectam grammaticen musicae putaverunt , et eosdem utriusque rei praeceptores fuisse cum Sophron ostendit , mimorum quidem scriptor sed quem Plato adeo probavit , ut suppositos capiti libros eius ,
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So far I have attempted merely to sound the praises of the noblest of arts without bringing it into connexion with the education of an orator. I will therefore pass by the fact that the art of letters and that of music were once united: indeed Archytas and Euenus held that the former was subordinate to the latter, while we know that the same instructors were employed for the teaching of both from Sophron, a writer of farces, it is true, but so highly esteemed by Plato, that he is believed to have had Sophron's works under his pillow on his deathbed: |
| 342 |
cum moreretur , habuisse credatur , tum Eupolis , apud quem Prodamus et musicen et litteras docet , et Maricas , qui est Hyperbolus , nihil se ex musice scire nisi litteras confitetur . Aristophanes quoque non uno libro sic institui pueros antiquitus solitos esse demonstrat , et apud Menandrum in Hypobolimaeo senex , qui reposcenti filium patri velut rationem impendiorum , quae in educationem contulerit , exponens , psaltis se et geometris multa dicit dedisse .
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the same fact is proved by the case of Eupolis, who makes Prodamus teach both music and literature, and whose Maricas, who was none other than Hyperbolus in disguise, asserts that he knows nothing of music but letters. Aristophanes again in more than one of his plays shows that boys were trained in music from remote antiquity, while in the Hypobolimaeus of Menander an old man, when a father claims his son from him, gives an account of all expenses incurred on behalf of the boy's education and states that he has paid out large sums to musicians and geometricians. |