Institutio Oratoria |
Translator: Harold Edgeworth Butler
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| 2547 |
Sed fallit parum diligenter intuentes , quod inveniunt in omnibus his locis figuras et earum exempla ex orationibus excerpunt . Neque enim pars ulla dicendi est , quae non recipere eas possit . Sed aliud est admittere figuram , aliud figuram esse . Neque enim verebor explicandae rei gratia frequentiorem eiusdem nominis repetitionem .
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But superficial observers are deceived by the fact that they find figures in all passages dealing with such themes, and select examples of them from speeches; whereas in reality there is no department of oratory which does not admit such figures. But it is one thing to admit i>figure and another to be a figure; I am not going to be frightened out of repeating the term with some frequency in my attempt to make the facts clear. My opponents will, I know, |
| 2548 |
Quare dabunt mihi aliquam in irascente , deprecante , miserante figuram , scio ; sed non ideo irasci , misereri , deprecari figura erit . Cicero quidem omnia orationis lumina in hunc locum congerit , mediam quandam , ut arbitror , secutus viam : ut neque omnis sermo schema iudicaretur neque ea sola , quae haberent aliquam remotam ab usu communi fictionem , sed quae essent clarissima et ad movendum auditorem valerent plurimum ; quem duobus ab eo libris tractatum locum ad litteras subieci , ne fraudarem legentes iudicio maximi auctoris .
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direct my attention to special figures employed in expressing anger, in entreating for mercy, or appealing to pity, but it does not follow that expressions of anger, appeals to pity or entreaties for mercy are in themselves figures. Cicero, it is true, includes all ornaments of oratory under this head, and in so doing adopts, as it seems to me, a middle course. For he does not hold that all forms of expression are to be regarded as figures, nor, on the other hand, would he restrict the term merely to those expressions whose form varies from ordinary use. But he regards as figurative all those expressions which are especially striking and most effective in stirring the emotions of the audience. He sets forth this view in two of his works, and that my readers may have the opportunity of realising the judgment of so high an authority, I subjoin what he says verbatim. |
| 2549 |
In tertio de Oratore ita scriptum est : In perpetua autem oratione , cum et coniunctionis levitatem et numerorum , quam dixi , rationem tenuerimus , tum est quasi luminibus distinguenda et frequentanda omnis oratio sententiarum atque verborum .
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In the third book of the de Oratore we find the following words: " As regards the composition of continuous speech, as soon as we have acquired the smoothness of structure and rhythm of which I have spoken, we must proceed to lend brilliance to our style by frequent embellishments both of thought and words. |
| 2550 |
Nam et commoratio una in re permultum movet et illustris explanation rerumque , quasi gerantur , sub aspectum paene subiectio , quae et in exponenda re plurimum valet et ad illustrandum id quod exponitur et ad amplificandum , ut iis qui audient illud quod augebimus , quantum efficere oratio poterit , tantum esse videatur ;
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For great effect may be produced by dwelling on a single point, and by setting forth our facts in such a striking manner that they seem to be placed before the eyes as vividly as if they were taking place in our actual presence. This is especially effective in stating a case or for the purpose of illuminating and amplifying the facts in course of statement, with a view to making our audience regard the point which we amplify as being as important as speech can make it. |
| 2551 |
et huic contraria saepe percursio est et plus ad intelligendum quam dixeris significatio et distincte concisa brevitas et extenuatio , et huic adiuncta illusio ; a praeceptis Caesaris non abhorrens , et ab re digressio , in qua cum fuerit delectatio , tum reditas ad rem aptus et concinnus esse debebit ; propositioque , quid sis dicturus , et ab eo quod est dictum seiunctio , et reditus ad propositum et iteratio et rationis apta conclusio ;
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On the other hand, as opposed to this procedure we may often give a rapid summary, suggest more than is actually said, may express ourselves tersely in short, clean-cut sentences and disparage, or, what is much the same, mock our opponent in a manner not inconsistent with the precepts given us by Caesar. Or we may employ digressions and then, after thus delighting our audience, make a neat and elegant return to our main theme. We may set forth in advance what we propose to say, mark off the topics already treated from those which are to follow, return to our point, repeat it and draw our formal conclusions. |
| 2552 |
tum augendi minuendive causa veritatis superlatio atque traiectio , et rogatio atque huic finitima quasi percontatio expositioque sententiae suae ; tum illa , quae maxime quasi irrepit in hominum mentes , alia dicentis ac significantis dissimulatio , quae est periucunda , cum in oratione non contentione sed sermone tractatur ;
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Again, with a view to augmenting or attenuating the force of some point, we may exaggerate and overstate the truth: we may ask questions, or, what is much the same, enquire of others and set forth our own opinion. There is also available the device of dissimulation, when we say one thing and mean another, the most effective of all means of stealing into the minds of men and a most attractive device, so long as we adopt a conversational rather than a controversial tone. |
| 2553 |
deinde dubitatio , tum distributio , tum correctio , vel ante vel post quam dixeris vel cum aliquid a te ipso reicias . Praemunitio etiam est ad id quod aggrediare , et reiectio in alium ; communicatio , quae est quasi cum iis ipsis apud quos dicas deliberatio ; morum ac vitae imitatio vel in personis vel sine illis , magnum quoddam ornamentum orationis et aptum ad animos conciliandos vel maxime , saepe autem etiam ad commovendos ; personarum ficta inductio vel gravissimum lumen augendi ;
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Hesitation may be expressed between two alternatives, our statement may be distributed in groups or we may correct ourselves, either before or after we have said something or when we repel some allegation against ourselves. We may defend ourselves by anticipation to secure the success of some point which we propose to make or may transfer the blame for some action to another. We may confer with our audience, admitting them as it were into our deliberations, may describe the life and character of persons either with or without mention of their names, a device which is one of the greatest embellishments of oratory and specially adapted to conciliate the feelings, as also frequently to excite them. |
| 2554 |
descriptio , erroris inductio , ad hilaritatem impulsio , anteoccupatio ; tum duo illa , quae maxime movent , similitudo et exemplum ; digestio , interpellatio , contentio , reticentia , commendatio .
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Again by the introduction of fictitious personages we may bring into play the most forcible form of exaggeration. We may describe the results likely to follow some action, introduce topics to lead our hearers astray, move them to mirth or anticipate the arguments of our opponent. Comparisons and examples may be introduced, both of them most effective methods; we may divide, interrupt, contrast, suppress, commend. |
| 2555 |
Vox quaedam libera atque etiam effrenatior augendi causa ; iracundia , obiurgatio , promissio ; deprecatio , obsecratio , declinatio brevis a proposito , non ut superior illa digressio , purgatio , conciliatio , laesio , optatio atque exsecratio .
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Our language may be free or even unbridled with a view to heighten our effects, while anger, reproach, promises that we shall prove our case, entreaty, supplication, slight deviations from our proposed course (which must be distinguished from the longer digressions mentioned above), exculpation, conciliation, personal attacks, wishes and execrations are all of value. |
| 2556 |
His fere luminibus illustrant orationem sententiae . Orationis autem ipsius tanquam armorum est vel ad usum comminatio et quasi petitio vel ad venustatem ipsa tractatio . Nam et geminatio verborum habet interdum vim , leporem alias , et paululum immutatum verbum atque deflexum , et eiusdem verbi crebra tum a primo repetitio , tum in extremum conversio , et in eadem verba impetus et concursio et adiunctio et progressio , et eiusdem verbi crebrius positi quaedam distinctio et revocatio verbi , et illa quae similiter desinunt aut quae cadunt similiter aut quae paribus paria referuntur aut quae sunt inter se similia .
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The above include practically all the devices of thought which may be employed for the adornment of our speech. As regards diction, this may either be employed like weapons for menace and attack, or handled merely for the purpose of display. For example, sometimes the repetition of words will produce an impression of force, at other times of grace. Again, slight changes and alterations may be made in words, the same word may be repeated sometimes at the beginning of a sentence and sometimes at the end, or the sentence may be made to open and close with the same phrase. One verb may be made to serve the purpose of a number of clauses, our words may be worked up to a climax, the same word may be repeated with a different meaning or reiterated at the opening of one sentence from the close of the preceding, while we may introduce words with similar terminations or in the same cases or balancing or resembling each other. |
| 2557 |
Est etiam gradatio quaedam et conversio et verborum concinna transgressio , et contrarium et dissolutum , et declinatio et reprehensio , et exclamatio et imminutio ; et quod in multis casibus ponitur et quod de singulis rebus propositis ductum refertur ad singula , et ad propositum subiecta ratio et item in distributis supposita ratio ;
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Other effects may be obtained by the graduation or contrast of clauses, by the elegant inversion of words, by arguments drawn from opposites, asyndeton, paraleipsis, correction, exclamation, meiosis, the employment of a word in different cases, moods and tenses, the correspondence of subsequent particulars with others previously mentioned, the addition of a reason for what is advanced, the assignment of a reason for each distinct statement; |
| 2558 |
et permissio et rursus alia dubitatio et improvisum quiddam ; et dinumeratio et alia correctio et dissipatio , et continuatam et interruptum , et imago et sibi ipsi responsio , et immutatio et diiunctio , et ordo et relatio , et digressio et circumscriptio .
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again we may employ concession and another form of hesitation, introduction of the unexpected, distinction by heads, another form of correction, local distribution, rapid succession of clauses, interruption of clauses, imagery, answering our own questions, immutation, the appropriate distinction of one proposition from another, effective arrangement, reference, digression and circumscription. |
| 2559 |
Haec enim sunt fere atque horum similia vel plura etiam esse possunt , quae sententiis orationem verborumque conformationibus illuminent . Eadem sunt in Oratore plurima non omnia tamen et paulo magis distincta , quia post orationis et sententiarum figuras tertium quendam subiecit locum ad alias , ut ipse ait , quasi virtutes dicendi pertinentem :
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These (and there may be yet more like them) are the various devices for the embellishment of our style, either by the cast of our thought or the conformation of our language. " Most of these statements are repeated by Cicero in the Orator, but not all, while his language is somewhat more precise, since after dealing with figures of speech and of thought he adds a third section, concerned, as he himself says, with the other excellences of style. |
| 2560 |
Et reliqua , ex conlocatione verborum quae sumuntur quasi lumina , magnum adferunt ornatum orationi . Sunt enim similia illis quae in amplo ornatu scenae aut fori appellantur insignia , non quia sola ornent , sed quod excellant .
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" And those other embellishments which are derived from the arrangement of words contribute greatly to the adornment of our style. They may be compared to what we term the decorations of the forum or a richly-ornamented stage, since they not only adorn, but stand out conspicuously in the midst of other ornaments. |
| 2561 |
Eadem ratio est horum quae sunt orationis lumina et quodam modo insignia , cum aut duplicantur iteranturque verba aut leviter commutata ponuntur , aut ab eodem verbo ducitur saepius oratio aut in idem coniicitur aut utrumque , aut adiungitur idem iteratum aut idem ad extremum refertur , aut continenter unum verbum non eadem sententia ponitur , aut cum similiter vel cadunt verba vel desinunt ;
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The principle governing the use of embellishments and decorations of style is the same: words may be repeated and reiterated or reproduced with some slight change. Sentences may repeatedly commence or end with the same word or may begin and end with the same phrase. The same word may be reiterated either at the beginning or at the conclusion, or may be repeated, but in a different sense. |
| 2562 |
aut multis modis contrariis relata contraria , aut cum gradatim sursum versus reditur , aut cum demptis coniunctionibus dissolute plura dicuntur , aut cum aliquid praetereuntes , cur id faciamus , ostendimus , aut cum corrigimus nosmet ipsos quasi reprehendentes , aut si est aliqua exclamatio vel admirationis vel conquestionis , aut cum eiusdem nominis casus saepius commutantur .
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Words may have the same inflexion or termination or be placed in various antitheses, our language may rise by gradations to a climax, or a number of words may be placed together in asyndeton without connecting particles. Or we may omit something, while making clear the reason for such omission, or correct ourselves with apparent censure of our carelessness, may utter exclamations of admiration or grief, or introduce the same word repeatedly in different cases. |
| 2563 |
Sententiarum ornamenta maiora sunt ; quibus quia frequentissime Demosthenes utatur , sunt qui patent , idcirco eius eloquentiam maxime esse laudabilem . Et vere nullus fere ab eo locus sine quadam conformatione sententiae dicitur , nec quicquam est aliud dicere nisi omnes aut certe plerasque aliqua specie illuminare sententias .
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The ornaments of thought are, however, more important. They are so frequently employed by Demosthenes that some critics have held that it is in them that the chief beauty of his style resides. And in truth there is hardly a topic in his speeches which is not distinguished by some artificial treatment of the thought, and it must be admitted that speaking involves the embellishment of all, or at any rate most of our thoughts with some form of ornament. |
| 2564 |
Quas cum tu optime , Brute , teneas , quid attinet nominibus uti aut exemplis ? Tantummodo notetur locus . Sic igitur dicet ille , quem expetimus , ut verset saepe mullis modis eadem et in una re haereat in eademque commoretur sententia .
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As you, Brutus, have such an admirable knowledge of all these methods, it would be waste of time for me to cite all their names or to give illustrations. I shall therefore content myself merely with indicating this topic. Our ideal orator then will speak in such a manner that he will cast the same thought into a number of different forms, will dwell on one point and linger over the same idea. |
| 2565 |
Saepe etiam ut extenuet aliquid ; saepe ut irrideat ; ut declinet a proposito deflectatque sententiam ; ut proponat quid dicturus sit ; ut , cum transegerit iam aliquid , definiat ; ut se ipse revocet , ut quod dixerit iteret ; ut argumentum ratione concludat ; ut interrogando urgeat ; ut rursus quasi ad interrogata sibi ipse respondeat ;
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he will often attenuate some one point or deride his opponent, will diverge from his theme and give a bias to his thought, will set forth what he intends to say, after completing his argument will give a brief summary, will recall himself to the point which he has left, repeat what he has said, complete his proof by a formal conclusion, embarrass his opponent by asking questions or answer himself in reply to imaginary questions; |
| 2566 |
ut contra ac dicat accipi et sentiri velit ; ut addubitet quid potius aut quo modo dicat ; ut dividat in partes ; ut aliquid relinquat ac negligat ; ut ante praemuniat ; ut in eo ipso , in quo reprehendatur , culpam in adversarium conferat ; ut saepe cum iis qui audiunt , nonnunquam etiam cum adversario quasi deliberet ;
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will desire his words to be taken in a different sense from their literal meaning, will hesitate what argument or form of statement to prefer, will classify and divide, will deliberately omit and ignore some point, and defend himself by anticipation; will transfer the blame of some charge brought against him to his opponent, will often take his audience, and sometimes even his opponent into consultation, |
| 2567 |
ut hominum mores sermonesque describat ; ut muta quaedam loquentia inducat ; ut ab eo quod agitur auertat animos ; ut saepe in hilaritatem risumve convertat ; ut ante occupet quod videat opponi ; ut comparet similitudines ; ut utatur exemplis ; ut aliud alii tribuens dispertiat ; ut interpellatorem coerceat ; ut aliquid reticere se dicat ; ut denuntiet quid caveant ; ut liberius quid audeat ; ut irascatur etiam , ut obiurget aliquando ; ut de precetur , ut supplicet , ut medeatur ; ut a proposito declinet aliquantum ; ut optet , ut exsecretur , ut fiat iis apud quos dicet familiaris .
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will describe the character and talk of particular persons, will put words into the mouths of inanimate objects, divert the minds of the audience from the point at issue, often move them to merriment or laughter, anticipate objections, introduce comparisons, cite precedents, assign and distribute different sentiments to different persons, silence interrupters, assert that there are certain things of which he prefers not to speak, warn his audience to be on their guard against certain things, or venture on a certain licence of speech. Again, he will wax angry, sometimes indulge in rebuke, entreaty or supplication, will clear away unfavourable impressions, swerve a little from his point, utter wishes or execrations, or address his audience in terms of familiar intimacy. |
| 2568 |
Atque alias etiam dicendi quasi virtutes sequetur , brevitatem , si res petet , saepe etiam rem dicendo subiiciet oculis , saepe supra feret quam fieri possit ; significatio saepe erit maior quam oratio , saepe hilaritas , saepe vitae naturarumque imitatio . Hoc in gerere ( nam quasi silvam vides ) omnis eluceat oportet eloquentiae magnitudo .
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There are also other virtues at which he should aim, such as brevity, if his theme demands it, while he will often set forth topics in such vivid language as almost to present them to the very eyes of his audience, or will exaggerate his subject beyond the bounds of possibility. His meaning will frequently be deeper than his words seem to indicate, his tone will often be cheerful, and he will often mimic life and character. In fact, as regards this department of oratory, of which I have given you the substance, lie must display eloquence in all its grandest forms. " |
| 2569 |
Ergo cui latius complecti conformationes verborum ac sententiarum placuerit , habet quod sequatur nec adfirmare ausim quicquam esse melius ; sed haec ad propositi mei rationem legat . Nam mihi de his sententiarum figuris dicere in animo est , quae ab illo simplici modo indicandi recedunt ; quod item multis doctissimis viris video placuisse .
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The student who desires to give a wider consideration to figures of thought and speech will, therefore, have a guide to follow, and 1 would not venture to assert that he could have a better. But I would ask him to read these passages of Cicero with reference to my own views on this subject. For I intend to speak only of those figures of thought which depart from the direct method of statement, and I note that a similar procedure has been adopted by a number of learned scholars. |
| 2570 |
Omnia tamen illa , etiam quae sunt alterius modi lumina , adeo sunt virtutes orationis ut sine iis nulla intelligi fere possit oratio . Nam quomodo iudex doceri potest , si desit illustris explanatio , propositio , promissio , finitio , seiunctio , expositio sententiae suae , rationis apta conclusio , praemunitio , similitudo , exemplum , digestio , distributio , interpellatio , interpellantis coercitio , contentio , purgatio , laesio ?
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On the other hand, all those embellishments which differ in character from these are none the less virtues whose importance is such that without them all oratory will be little less than unintelligible. For how can the judge be adequately instructed unless lucidity characterise our performance of the following tasks: explanation, proposition, promise of proofs, definition, distinction, exposition of our own opinion, logical conclusion, defence by anticipation, introduction of comparisons or precedents, disposition and distribution, interruption, repression of those who interrupt us, antithesis, exculpation and personal attack? |
| 2571 |
Quid vero agit omnino eloquentia detractis amplificandi minuendique rationibus ? Quarum prior desiderat illam plus quam dixeris significationem , id est ἔμφασιν , et supralationem veritatis et traiectionem ; haec altera extenuationem deprecationemque . Qui adfectus erunt vel concitati detracta voce libera et effrenatiore , iracundia , obiurgatione , optatione , exsecratione ? vel illi mitiores , nisi adiuvantur commendatione , conciliatione , ad hilaritatem impulsione ?
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Again, what would eloquence do if deprived of the artifices of amplification and its opposite? of which the first requires the gift of signifying more than we say, that is emphasis, together with exaggeration and overstatement of the truth, while the latter requires the power to diminish and palliate. What scope is there for the stronger emotions if the orator is not allowed to give free rein to his speech, to flame out in anger, to reproach, to wish or execrate? Or for the milder emotions without the assistance of commendation, conciliation and humour? |
| 2572 |
Quae delectatio aut quod mediocriter saltem docti hominis indicium , nisi alia repetitione , alia commoratione infigere , digredi a re et redire ad propositum suum scierit , removere a se , in alium traiicere , quae relinquenda , quae contemnenda sint iudicare ? Motus est in his orationis atque actus , quibus detractis iacet et velut agitante corpus spiritu caret .
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What pleasure can an orator hope to produce, or what impression even of the most moderate learning, unless he knows how to fix one point in the minds of the audience by repetition, and another by dwelling on it, how to digress from and return to his theme, to divert the blame from himself and transfer it to another, or to decide what points to omit and what to ignore as negligible? It is qualities such as these that give life and vigour to oratory; without them it lies torpid like a body lacking the breath to stir its limbs. |
| 2573 |
Quae cum adesse debent , tum disponenda atque varianda sunt , ut auditorem , quod in fidibus fieri videmus , omni sono mulceant . Verum ea plerumque recta sunt nec se fingunt , sed confitentur . Admittunt autem , ut dixi , figuras , quod vel ex proxima doceri potest .
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But more than the mere possession of these qualities is required; they must be deployed, each in their proper place and with such variety that every sound may bewitch the hearer with all the charm of music. But these qualities are as a rule open and direct, manifesting themselves without disguise. They do, however, as I have said, admit of figures, as the instances to which I shall proceed will show. |
| 2574 |
Quid enim tam commune quam interrogare vel percontari ? Nam utroque utimur indifferenter , quanquam alterum noscendi , alterum arguendi gratia videtur adhiberi . At ea res , utrocunque dicitur modo , etiam multiplex habet schema . Incipiamus enim ab iis , quibus acrior ac vehementior fit probatio , quod primo loco posuimus .
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What is more common than to ask or enquire? For both terms are used indifferently, although the one seems to imply a desire for knowledge, and the other a desire to prove something. But whichever term we use, the thing which they represent admits a variety of figures. We will begin with those which serve to increase the force and cogency of proof to which I assign the first place. |
| 2575 |
Simplex est sic rogare , " Sed vos qui tandem ? quibus aut venistis ab oris ? " Figuratum autem , quotiens non sciscitandi gratia adsumitur , sed instandi , Quid enim tuus ille , Tubero , destrictus in acie Pharsalica gladius agebat ? et , Quousque tandem abutere , Catilina , patientia nostra ? et , Patere tua consilia non sentis ? et totus denique hic locus .
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A simple question may be illustrated by the line: "But who are ye and from what shores are come?" On the other hand, a question involves a figure, whenever it is employed not to get information, but to emphasise our point, as in the following examples: "What was that sword of yours doing, Tubero, that was drawn on the field of Pharsalus?" and "How long, Catiline, will you abuse our patience?" and "Do you not see that your plots are all laid bare?" with the whole passage that follows. |
| 2576 |
Quanto enim magis ardet quam si diceretur , Diu abuteris patientia nostra , et Patent tua consilia . Interrogamus etiam quod negari non possit , Dixitne tandem causam C . Fidiculanius Falcula ? aut ubi respondendi difficilis est ratio , ut vulgo uti solemus , Quo modo ?
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How much greater is the fire of his words as they stand than if he had said, "You have abused our patience a long time," and "Your plots are all laid bare." We may also ask what cannot be denied, as "Was Gaius Fidiculanius Falcula, I ask you, brought to justice?" Or we may put a question to which it is difficult to reply, as in the common forms, "How is it possible? "How can that be? " |
| 2577 |
qui fieri potest ? aut invidiae gratia , ut Medea apud Senecam , Quas peti terras iubes ? aut miserationis , ut Sinon apud Vergilium , " Heu quae me tellus , inquit , quae me aequora possunt Accipere ? " aut instandi et auferendae dissimulationis , ut Asinius , Audisne ? furiosum , inquam , non inofficiosum testamentum reprehendimus .
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Or we may ask a question with a view to throw odium on the person to whom it is addressed, as in the words placed by Seneca in the mouth of Medea: "What lands dost bid me seek?" Or our aim may be to excite pity, as is the case with the question asked by Sinon in Virgil: "Alas, what lands, lie cried, What seas can now receive me?" Or to embarrass our opponent and to deprive him of the power to feign ignorance of our meaning, as Asinius does in the following sentence: " Do you hear? The will which we impugn is the work of a madman, not of one who lacked natural affection. " In fact questions admit of infinite variety. |
| 2578 |
Totum hoc plenum est varietatis ; nam et indignationi convenit : " Et quisquam numen Iunonis adoret ? " et admirationi : " Quid non mortalia pectora cogis , Auri sacra fames ? "
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They may serve our indignation, as in the line: "Are any left That still adore Juno's divinity?" Or they may still express wonder, as in: "To what dost thou not drive the hearts of men, Accursed greed of gold?" Again, at times they may express a sharp command, |
| 2579 |
est interim acrius imperandi genus : " Non arma expedient totaque ex urbe sequentur ? " et ipsi nosmet rogamus , quale est illud Terentianum Quid igitur faciam ?
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as in: "Will they not rush to arms and follow forth From all the city?" Or we may ask ourselves, as in the phrase of Terence, "What, then, shall I do?" |
| 2580 |
Est aliqua etiam in respondendo figura , cum aliud interroganti ad aliud , quia sic utilius sit , occurritur , tum augendi criminis gratia , ut testis in reum rogatus , an ab reo fustibus vapulasset , Et innocens , inquit ; tum declinandi , quod est frequentissimum : Quaero , an occideris hominem ; respondetur , Latronem ; An fundum occupaveris ; respondetur , Meum .
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A figure is also involved in a reply, when one question is asked and another is answered, because it suits the respondent's purpose better to do so, or because it aggravates the charge brought against the accused. For example, a witness for the prosecution was asked whether he had been cudgelled by the plaintiff, and replied, "And what is more, I had done him no harm." Or the purpose may be to elude a charge, a very common form of reply. The advocate says, "I ask if you killed the man?" The accused replies, "He was a robber." The advocate asks, "Have you occupied the farm?" The accused replies, "It was my own." |
| 2581 |
Ut confessionem praecedat defensio , ut apud Vergilium in Bucolicis dicenti , " Non ego te vidi Damonis , pessime , caprum Excipere insidiis ? " occurritur : " An mihi cantando victus non redderet ille ? " Cui est confinis dissimulatio ,
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Again, the answer may be of such a kind as to make defence precede confession. For example, in the Eclogues of Virgil, when one shepherd asks: "Did I not see you, villain, snare a goat Of Damon's?" the other replies: "I vanquished him in song, and should he not Pay me the prize, my due?" |
| 2582 |
non alibi quam in risu posita ideoque tractata suo loco . Nam serio si fiat , pro confessione est . Ceterum et interrogandi se ipsum et respondendi sibi solent esse non ingratae vices , ut Cicero pro Ligario , Apud quem igitur hoc dico ? Nempe apud eum , qui , cum hoc sciret , tamen me , antequam vidit , rei publicae reddidit .
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Akin to this kind of answer is the dissimulatory reply, which is employed solely with the purpose of raising a laugh, and has therefore been treated in its appropriate place. If it were meant seriously, it would be tantamount to a confession. Further, there is the practice of putting the question and answering it oneself, which may have quite a pleasing effect. Take as an example the following passage from the pro Ligario, where Cicero says, " Before whom do I say this? Before one who, although he was aware of these facts, yet restored me to my country even before he had seen me. " |
| 2583 |
Aliter pro Caelio ficta interrogatione : Dicet aliquis , Haec igitur est tua disciplina ? sic tu instituis adulescentis ? et totus locus . Deinde : Ego , si quis , iudices , hoc robore animi atque hac indole virtutis ac continentiae fuit , et cetera . Cui diversum est , cum alium rogaveris , non exspectare responsum sed statim subiicere : Domus tibi deerat ? at habebas ; pecunia superabat ? at egebas . Quod schema quidam per suggestionem vocant .
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A different form of fictitious question is to be found in the pro Caelio. " Some one will say, 'Is this your moral discipline? Is this the training you would give young men?' " with the whole passage that follows. Then comes his reply, " Gentlemen, if there were any man with such vigour of mind, with such innate virtue and self-control, etc. " A different method is to ask a question and not to wait for a reply, but to subjoin the reply at once yourself. For example, " Had you no house? Yes, you had one. Had you money and to spare? No, you were in actual want. " This is a figure which some call suggestion. |
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Fit et comparatione : Uter igitur facilius suae sententiae rationem redderet ? Et aliis modis tum brevius , tum latius , tum de una re , tum de pluribus . Mire vero in causis valet praesumptio , quae πρόλημψις dicitur , cum id quod obiici potest occupamus . Id neque in aliis partibus rarum est et praecipue prooemio convenit .
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Again, a question may involve comparison, as, for instance, "Which of the two then could more easily assign a reason for his opinion?" There are other forms of question as well, some concise, some developed at greater length, some dealing with one thing only, others with several. Anticipation, or, as the Greeks call it, πρόληψις, whereby we forestall objections, is of extraordinary value in pleading; it is frequently employed in all parts of a speech, but is especially useful in the exordium. |