Institutio Oratoria |
Translator: Harold Edgeworth Butler
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| 267 |
Illa quoque servata est a multis differentia , ut ad , cum esset praepositio , d litteram , cum autem coniunctio , t acciperet , itemque cum , si tempus significaret , per qu , si comitem , per c ac duas sequentes scriberetur .
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Again the following distinction has frequently been observed: ad is spelt with a d when it is a preposition, but with a t when it is a conjunction, while cum is spelt quum when it denotes time, but cum when it denotes accompaniment. |
| 268 |
Frigidiora his alia , ut quidquid c quartam haberet , ne interrogare his videremur ; et quotidie non cotidie , ut sit quot diebus .Verum haec iam etiam inter ipsas ineptias evanuerunt .
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Still more pedantic are the practices of making the fourth letter of quidquid a c to avoid the appearance of repeating a question, and of writing quotidie instead of colidie to show that it stands for quot diebus. But such practices have disappeared into the limbo of absurdities. |
| 269 |
Quaeri solet , in scribendo praepositiones sonum quem iunctae efficiunt , an quem separatae , observare conveniat : ut , cum dico optinuit ( secundam enim b litteram ratio poscit ,
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It is often debated whether in our spelling of prepositions we should be guided by their sound when compounded, or separate. For instance when I say optinuit, logic demands that the second letter should be a b, while to the ear the sound is rather that of p: or again take the case of immunis: |
| 270 |
aures magis audiunt p ) et immunis , illud enim , quod veritas exigit , sequentis syllabae sono victum m gemina commutatur .
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the letter n, which is required by strict adherence to fact, is forced by the sound of the m. which follows to change into another m. |
| 271 |
Est et in dividendis verbis observatio , mediam litteram consonantem priori an sequenti syllabae adiungas : haruspex enim , quia pars eius posterior a spectando est , s litteram tertiae dabit ; abstemius , quia ex abstinentia temeti composita vox est , primae relinquet .
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We must also note when analysing compound words, whether the middle consonant adheres to the preceding syllable or to that which follows. For example since the latter part of haruspex is from spectare, the s must be assigned to the third syllable. In abstemius on the other hand it will go with the first syllable since the word is derived from abstinentia temeti, "abstention from wine." |
| 272 |
Nam k quidem in nullis verbis utendum puto , nisi quae significant , etiam ut sola ponatur . Hoc eo non omisi , quod quidam eam , quotiens a sequatur , necessariam credunt , cum sit c littera , quae ad omnes vocales vim suam perferat .
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As for k my view is that it should not be used at all except in such words as may be indicated by the letter standing alone as an abbreviation. I mention the fact because some hold that k should be used whenever the next letter is an a, despite the existence of the letter c which maintains its force in conjunction with all the vowels. Orthography, however, |
| 273 |
Verum orthographia quoque consuetudini servit , ideoque saepe mutata est . Nam illa vetustissima transeo tempora , quibus et pauciores litterae nec similes his nostris earum formae fuerunt et vis quoque diversa , sicut apud Graecos o litterae , quae interim longa ac brevis ut apud nos , interim pro syllaba quam nomine suo exprimit posita est ;
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is also the servant of usage and therefore undergoes frequent change. I make no mention of the earliest times when our alphabet contained fewer letters and their shapes differed from those which we now use, while their values also were different. For instance in Greek the letter o was sometimes long and short, as it is with us, and again was sometimes used to express the syllable which is identical with its name. |
| 274 |
ut Latinis veteribus d plurimis in verbis adiectam ultimam , quod manifestum est etiam ex columna rostrata , quae est Duilio in foro posita ; interim g quoque , ut in pulvinari Solis , qui colitur iuxta aedem Quirini , vesperug , quod vesperuginem accipimus .
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And in Latin ancient writers ended a number of words with d, as may be seen on the column adorned with the beaks of ships, which was set up in the forum in honour of Duilius. Sometimes again they gave words a final g, as we may still see in the shrine of the Sun, close to the temple of Quirinus, where we find the word uesperug, which we write uesperugo (evening star). |
| 275 |
De mutatione etiam litterarum , de qua supra dixi , nihil repetere hic necesse est , fortasse enim sicut scribebant etiam loquebantur .
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I have already spoken of the interchange of letters and need not repeat my remarks here: perhaps their pronunciation corresponded with their spelling. |
| 276 |
Semivocales geminare diu non fuit usitatissimi moris , atque e contrario usque ad Accium et ultra porrectas syllabas geminis , ut dixi , vocalibus scripserunt .
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For a long time the doubling of semivowels was avoided, while down to the time of Accius and beyond, long syllables were indicated by repetition of the vowel. |
| 277 |
Diutius duravit , ut e et i iungendis eadem ratione qua Graeci ει uterentur ; ea casibus numerisque discreta est , ut Lucilius praecipit : Iam puerei venere , e postremum . facito atque i , Ut pueri plures fiant ; ac deinceps idem : Mendaci furique addes e , cum dare furi iusseris .
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The practice of joining e and i as in the Greek diphthong ει lasted longer: it served to distinguish cases and numbers, for which we may compare the instructions of Lucilius: "The boys are come: why then, their names must end With e and i to make them more than one; and later— " If to a thief and liar ( mendaci furique ) you would give, In e and i your thief must terminate. " But this addition of e is quite superfluous, since t can be long no less than short: |
| 278 |
Quod quidem cum supervacuum est , quia i tam longae quam brevis naturam habet , tum incommodum aliquando . Nam in iis , quae proximam ab ultima litteram e habebunt et i longa terminabuntur , illam rationem sequentes utemur e gemina , qualia sunt haec aurei , argentei et his similia .
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it is also at times inconvenient. For in those words which end in i and have e as their last letter but one, we shall on this principle have to write e twice: I refer to words such as aurei or argentei and the like. |
| 279 |
Idque iis praecipue , qui ad lectionem instituentur , etiam impedimento erit ; sicut in Graecis accidit adiectione i litterae , quam non solum dativis casibus in parte ultima ascribunt sed quibusdam etiam interponunt , ut in ΛΗΙΣΤΗΙ quia etymologia ex divisione in tris syllabas facta desideret eam litteram .
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Now such a practice will be an actual hindrance to those who are learning to read. This difficulty occurs in Greek as well in connexion with the addition of an iota, which is employed not merely in the termination of the dative, but is sometimes found in the middle of words as in λῄστης, for the reason that the analysis applied by etymology shows the word to be a trisyllable and requires the addition of that letter. The diphthong ae now written with an e, was pronounced in old days as ai; |
| 280 |
Ae syllabam , cuius secundam nunc e litteram ponimus , varie per a et i efferebant ; quidam semper ut Graeci , quidam singulariter tantum , cum in datiuum vel genitivum casum incidissent , unde pictai vestis et aquai Vergilius amantissimus vetustatis carminibus inseruit .
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some wrote ai in all cases, as in Greek, others confined its use to the dative and genitive singular; whence it comes that Vergil, always a passionate lover of antiquity, inserted pictai uestis and aquai in his poems. |
| 281 |
In iisdem plurali numero e utebantur , hi Syllae , Galbae .Est in hac quoque parte Lucilii praeceptum , quod quia pluribus explicatur versibus , si quis parum credet , apud ipsum in nono requirat .
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But in the plural they used e and wrote Syllae, Galbae. Lucilius has given instructions on this point also; his instructions occupy quite a number of verses, for which the incredulous may consult his ninth book. |
| 282 |
Quid quod Ciceronis temporibus paulumque infra , fere quotiens s littera media vocalium longarum vel subiecta longis esset , geminabatur , ut caussae , cassus , divissiones ? quomodo et ipsum et Vergilium quoque scripsisse manus eorum docent .
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Again in Cicero's days and a little later, it was the almost universal practice to write a double s , whenever that letter occurred between two long vowels or after a long vowel, as for example in caussae, cassus, diuissiones. That he and Vergil both used this spelling is shown by their own autograph manuscripts. |
| 283 |
Atqui paulum superiores etiam illud , quod nos gemina dicimus iussi , una dixerunt . Iam optimus maximus , ut media i litteram , quae veteribus u fuerat , acciperent , Gai primum Caesaris inscriptione traditur factum .
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And yet at a slightly earlier date iussi which we write with a double s was spelt with only one. Further optimnus maximus, which older writers spelt with a u, appear for the first time with an i (such at any rate is the tradition) in an inscription of Gaius Caesar. |
| 284 |
Here nunc e littera terminamus , at veterum comicorum adhuc libris invenio Heri ad me venit ; quod idem in epistolis Augusti , quas sua manu scripsit aut emendavit , deprehenditur .
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We now write here, but I still find in manuscripts of the old comic poets phrases such as heri ad me uenit, and the same spelling is found in letters of Augustus written or corrected by his own hand. |
| 285 |
Quid ? non Cato Censorius dicam et faciam dicem et faciem scripsit , eundemque in ceteris , quae similiter cadunt , modum tenuit , quod et ex veteribus eius libris manifestum est et a Messala in libro de s littera positum ?
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Again did not Cato the censor spell dicam and faciam as dicem and faciem and observe the same practice in words of similar termination? This is clear from old manuscripts of his works and is recorded by Messala in his treatise on the letter s. Sibe and quase are found in many books, but I cannot say whether the authors wished them to be spelt thus: |
| 286 |
Sibe et quase scriptum in multorum libris est , sed an hoc voluerint auctores , nescio ; T . Livium ita his usum ex Pediano comperi , qui et ipse eum sequebatur ;
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I learn from Pedianus that Livy, whose precedent he himself adopted, used this spelling: to-day we make these words end with an i. |
| 287 |
haec nos i littera finimus . Quid dicam vortices et vorsus ceteraque ad eundem modum , quae primus Scipio Africanus in e litteram secundam vertisse dicitur ?
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What shall I say of uorlices, uorsus and the like, which Scipio Africanus is said to have been the first to spell with an e? |
| 288 |
Nostri praeceptores seruum ceruumque u et o litteris scripserunt , quia subiecta sibi vocalis in unum sonum coalescere et confundi nequiret ; nunc u gemina scribuntur ea ratione , quam reddidi ; neutro sane modo vox , quam sentimus , efficitur . Nec inutiliter Claudius Aeolicam illam ad hos usus litteram adiecerat .
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My own teachers spelt seruus and ceruus with a uo, in order that the repetition of the vowel might not lead to the coalescence and confusion of the two sounds: to-day however we write these words with a double u on the principle which I have already stated: neither spelling however exactly expresses the pronunciation. It was not without reason that Claudius introduced the Aeolic digamma to represent this sound. It is a distinct improvement that to-day we spell cui as I have written it: |
| 289 |
Illud nunc melius , quod cui tribus , quas praeposui , litteris enotamus ; in quo pueris nobis ad pinguem sane sonum qu et oi utebantur , tantum ut ab illo qui distingueretur .
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when I was a boy it used to be spelt quoi, giving it a very full sound, merely to distinguish it from qui. |
| 290 |
Quid ? quae scribuntur aliter quam enuntiantur ? Nam et Gaius C littera significatur , quae inversa mulierem declarat ; quia tam Gaias esse vocitatas quam Gaios etiam ex nuptialibus sacris apparet .
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Again, what of words whose spelling is at variance with their pronunciation? For instance C is used as an abbreviation for Gaius, and when inverted stands for a woman, for as we know from the words of the marriage service women used to be called Gaiae, just as men were called Gaii. Gnaeus |
| 291 |
Nec Gnaeus eam litteram in praenominis nota accipit , quae sonat ; et columnam et consules exempta n littera legimus ; et Subura , cum tribus litteris notatur , c tertiam ostendit . Multa sunt generis huius ; sed haec quoque vereor ne modum tam parvae quaestionis excesserint .
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too in the abbreviation indicating the praenomen is spelt in a manner which does not agree with its pronunciation. We also find columnas and consul spelt without an n, while Subura when indicated by three letters is spelt Suc. I could quote many other examples of this, but I fear that I have already said too much on so trivial a theme. |
| 292 |
Iudicium autem suum grammaticus interponat his omnibus ; nam hoc valere plurimum debet . Ego ( nisi quod consuetudo obtinuerit ) sic scribendum quidque iudico , quomodo sonat .
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On all such subjects the teacher must use his own judgment; for in such matters it should be the supreme authority. For my own part, I think that, within the limits prescribed by usage, words should be spelt as they are pronounced. |
| 293 |
Hic enim est usus litterarum , ut custodiant voces et velut depositum reddant legentibus , itaque id exprimere debent quod dicturi sumus .
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For the use of letters is to preserve the sound of words and to deliver them to readers as a sacred trust: consequently they ought to represent the pronunciation which we are to use. |
| 294 |
Hae fere sunt emendate loquendi scribendique partes ; duas reliquas significanter ornateque dicendi non equidem grammaticis aufero , sed cum mihi officia rhetoris supersint , maiori operi reservo .
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These are the more important points in connexion with writing and speaking correctly. I do not go so far as to deny to the teacher of literature all part in the two remaining departments of speaking and writing with elegance and significance, but I reserve these for a more important portion of this work, as I have still to deal with the duties of the teacher of rhetoric. |
| 295 |
Redit autem illa cogitatio , quosdam fore , qui haec quae diximus parva nimium et impedimenta quoque maius aliquid agentibus putent . Nec ipse ad extremam usque anxietatem et ineptas cavillationes descendendum atque iis ingenia concidi et comminui credo .
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I am however haunted by the thought that some readers will regard what I have said as trivial details which are only likely to prove a hindrance to those who are intent upon a greater task; and I myself do not think that we should go so far as to lose our sleep of nights or quibble like fools over such minutiae; for such studies make mincemeat of the mind. But it is only the superfluities of grammar that do any harm. |
| 296 |
Sed nihil ex grammatice nocuerit , nisi quod supervacuum est . An ideo minor est M . Tullius orator , quod idem artis huius diligentissimus fuit et in filio ( ut epistolis apparet ) recte loquendi asper quoque exactor ? aut vim C . Caesaris fregerunt editi de analogia libri ?
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I ask you, is Cicero a less great orator for having given this science his diligent attention or for having, as his letters show, demanded rigid correctness of speech from his son? Or was the vigour of Gaius Caesar's eloquence impaired by the publication of a treatise on Analogy? |
| 297 |
aut ideo minus Messala nitidus , quia quosdam totos libellos non verbis modo singulis sed etiam litteris dedit ? Non obstant hae disciplinae per illas euntibus sed circa illas haerentibus .
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Or the polish of Messala dimmed by the fact that he devoted whole books to the discussion not merely of single words, but of single letters? Such studies do no harm to those who but pass through them: it is only the pedantic stickler who suffers. |
| 298 |
Superest lectio , in qua puer ut sciat , ubi suspendere spiritum debeat , quo loco versum distinguere , ubi claudatur sensus , unde incipiat , quando attollenda vel summittenda sit vox , quo quidque flexu , quid lentius , celerius , concitatius , lenius dicendum , demonstrari nisi in opere ipso non potest .
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Reading remains for consideration. In this connexion there is much that can only be taught in actual practice, as for instance when the boy should take breath, at what point he should introduce a pause into a line, where the sense ends or begins, when the voice should be raised or lowered, what modulation should be given to each phrase, and when he should increase or slacken speed, or speak with greater or less energy. |
| 299 |
Unum est igitur , quod in hac parte praecipiam : ut omnia ista facere possit , intelligat . Sit autem in primis lectio virilis et cum suavitate quadam gravis et non quidem prosae similis , quia et carmen est et se poetae canere testantur ; non tamen in canticum dissoluta nec plasmate ( ut nunc a plerisque fit ) effeminata ; de quo genere optime C . Caesarem praetextatum adhuc accepimus dixisse : Si cantas , male cantas ; si legis , cantas .
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In this portion of my work I will give but one golden rule: to do all these things, he must understand what he reads. But above all his reading must be manly, combining dignity and charm; it must be different from the reading of prose, for poetry is song and poets claim to be singers. But this fact does not justify degeneration into sing-song or the effeminate modulations now in vogue: there is an excellent saying on this point attributed to Gaius Caesar while he was still a boy: "If you are singing, you sing badly: if you are reading, you sing." |
| 300 |
Nec prosopopoeias , ut quibusdam placet , ad comicum morem pronuntiari velim ; esse tamen flexum quendam , quo distinguantur ab iis , in quibus poeta persona sua utetur .
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Again I do not, like some teachers, wish character as revealed by speeches to be indicated as it is by the comic actor, though I think that there should be some modulation of the voice to distinguish such passages from those where the poet is speaking in person. |
| 301 |
Cetera admonitione magna egent , in primis , ut tenerae mentes tracturaeque altius , quidquid rudibus et omnium ignaris insederit , non modo quae diserta sed vel magis quae honesta sunt , discant .
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There are other points where there is much need of instruction: above all, unformed minds which are liable to be all the more deeply impressed by what they learn in their days of childish ignorance, must learn not merely what is eloquent; it is even more important that they should study what is morally excellent. |
| 302 |
Ideoque optime institutum est , ut ab Homero atque Vergilio lectio inciperet , quanquam ad intelligendas eorum virtutes firmiore iudicio opus est ; sed huic rei superest tempus , neque enim semel legentur . Interim et sublimitate heroi carminis animus adsurgat et ex magnitudine rerum spiritum ducat et optimis imbuatur .
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It is therefore an admirable practice which now prevails, to begin by reading Homer and Vergil, although the intelligence needs to be further developed for the full appreciation of their merits: but there is plenty of time for that since the boy will read them more than once. In the meantime let his mind be lifted by the sublimity of heroic verse, inspired by the greatness of its theme and imbued with the loftiest sentiments. |
| 303 |
Utiles tragoediae , alunt et lyrici ; si tamen in his non auctores modo sed etiam partes operis elegeris , nam et Graeci licenter multa et Horatium nolim in quibusdam interpretari . Elegia vero , utique quae amat , et hendecasyllabi , qui sunt commata Sotadeorum ( nam de Sotadeis ne praecipiendum quidem est ) amoveantur , si fieri potest , si minus , certe ad firmius aetatis robur reserventur .
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The reading of tragedy also is useful, and lyric poets will provide nourishment for the mind, provided not merely the authors be carefully selected, but also the passages from their works which are to be read. For the Greek lyric poets are often licentious and even in Horace there are passages which I should be unwilling to explain to a class. Elegiacs, however, more especially erotic elegy, and hendecasyllables, which are merely sections of Sotadean verse (concerning which latter I need give no admonitions), should be entirely banished, if possible; if not absolutely banished, they should be reserved for pupils of a less impressionable age. As to comedy, whose contribution to eloquence may be of no small importance, |
| 304 |
Comoediae , quae plurimum conferre ad eloquentiam potest , cum per omnes et personas et adfectus eat , quem usum in pueris putem , paulo post suo loco dicam ; nam cum mores in tuto fuerint , inter praecipua legenda erit .
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since it is concerned with every kind of character and emotion, I will shortly point out in its due places what use can in my opinion be made of it in the education of boys. As soon as we have no fear of contaminating their morals, it should take its place among the subjects which it is specially desirable to read. I speak of Menander, though I would not exclude others. For Latin authors will also be of some service. |