Institutio Oratoria |
Translator: Harold Edgeworth Butler
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| 989 |
Est utilitatis et in tempore quaestio , expedit sed non nunc ; et in loco , non hic ; et in persona , non nobis , non contra hos ; et in genere agendi , non sic ; et in modo , non in tantum .Sed personam saepius decoris gratia intuemur , quae et in nobis et in iis , qui deliberant , spectanda est .
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A question of expediency may also be concerned with time (for example, "it is expedient, but not now" ) or with place ( "it is expedient, but not here" ) or with particular persons ( "it is expedient, but not for us" or "not as against these" ) or with our method of action ( "it is expedient, but not thus" ) or with degree ( "it is expedient, but not to this extent" ). But we have still more often to consider personality with reference to what is becoming, and we must consider our own as well as that of those before whom the question is laid. |
| 990 |
Itaque quamvis exempla plurimum in consiliis possint , quia facillime ad consentiendum homines ducuntur experimentis , refert tamen , quorum auctoritas et quibus adhibeatur .
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Consequently, though examples are of the greatest value in deliberative speeches, because reference to historical parallels is the quickest method of securing assent, it matters a great deal whose authority is adduced and to whom it is commended. For the minds of those who deliberate on any subject differ from one another and our audience may be of two kinds. |
| 991 |
Diversi sunt enim deliberantium animi , duplex condicio . Nam consultant aut plures aut singuli ; sed in utrisque differentia , quia et in pluribus multum interest , senatus sic an populus , Romani an Fidenates , Graeci an barbari , et in singulis , Catoni petendos honores suadeamus an C . Mario , de ratione belli Scipio prior ani Fabius deliberet .
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For those who ask us for advice are either single individuals or a number, and in both cases the factors may be different. For when advice is asked by a number of persons it makes a considerable difference whether they are the senate or the people, the citizens of Rome or Fidenae, Greeks or barbarians, and in the case of single individuals, whether we are urging Cato or Gaius Marius to stand for office, whether it is the elder Scipio or Fabius who is deliberating on his plan of campaign. |
| 992 |
Proinde intuenda sexus , dignitas , actas . Sed mores praecipue discrimen dabunt . Et honesta quidem honestis suadere facillimum est ; si vero apud turpes recta obtinere conabimur , ne videamur exprobrare diversam vitae sectam , cavendum .
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Further sex, rank, and age, must be taken into account, though it is character that will make the chief difference. It is an easy task to recommend an honourable course to honourable men, but if we are attempting to keep men of bad character to the paths of virtue, we must take care not to seem to upbraid a way of life unlike our own. |
| 993 |
Et animus deliberantis non ipsa honesti natura , quam he non respicit , permouendus , sed laude , vulgi opinion , et si parum proficiet haec vanitas , secutura ex his utilitate , aliquanto vero magis obiiciendo aliquos , si diversa fecerint , metus .
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The minds of such an audience are not to be moved by discoursing on the nature of virtue, which they ignore, but by praise, by appeals to popular opinion, and if such vanities are of no avail, by demonstration of the advantage that will accrue from such a policy, or more effectively perhaps by pointing out the appalling consequences that will follow the opposite policy. |
| 994 |
Namque praeter id quod his levissimi cuiusque animus facillime terretur , nescio an etiam naturaliter apud plurimos plus valeat malorum timor quam spes bonorum , sicut facilior eisdem turpium quam honestorum intellectus est .
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For quite apart from the fact that the minds of unprincipled men are easily swayed by terror, I am not sure that most men's minds are not more easily influenced by fear of evil than by hope of good, for they find it easier to understand what is evil than what is good. |
| 995 |
Aliquando bonis quoque suadentur parum decora , dantur parum bonis consilia , in quibus ipsorum qui consulunt spectator utilitas . Nec me fallit , quae statim cogitatio subire possit legentem : Hoc ergo praecipis ?
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Sometimes again we urge good men to adopt a somewhat unseemly course, while we advise men of poor character to take a course in which the object is the advantage of those who seek our advice. I realise the thought that will immediately occur to my reader: "Do you then teach that this should be done |
| 996 |
et hoc fas putas ? Poterat me liberare Cicero , qui ita scribit ad Brutum , praepositis plurimis , quae honeste suaderi Caesari possint : Simne bonus vir , si haec suadeam ? Minime . Suasoris enim finis est utilitas eius , cui quisque suadet . At recta sunt . Quis negat ? sed non est semper rectis in suadendo locus . Sed quia est altior quaestio nec tantum ad suasorias pertinet , destinatus est mihi hic locus duodecimo , qui summus futurus est , libro .
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or think it right?" Cicero might clear me from blame in the matter; for he writes to Brutus in the following terms, after setting forth a number of things that might honourably be urged on Caesar: " Should I be a good man to advise this? No. For the end of him who gives advice is the advantage of the man to whom he gives it. But, you say, your advice is right. Certainly, but there is not always room for what is right in giving advice. " However, this is a somewhat abstruse question, and does not concern deliberative oratory alone. I shall therefore reserve it for my twelfth and concluding book. |
| 997 |
Nec ego quicquam fieri turpiter velim . Verum interim haec vel ad scholarum exercitationes pertinere credantur , nam et iniquorum ratio noscenda est , ut melius aequa tueamur .
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For my part I would not have anything done dishonourably. But for the meantime let us regard these questions as at least belonging to the rhetorical exercises of the schools: for knowledge of evil is necessary to enable us the better to defend what is right. |
| 998 |
Interim si quis bono inhonesta suadebit , meminerit non suadere tanquam inhonesta , it quidam declamatores Sextum Pompeium ad piraticam propter hoc ipsum quod turpis et crudelis sit , impellunt ; sed dandus illis deformibus color idque etiam apud malos .
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For the present I will only say that if anyone is going to urge a dishonourable course on honourable man, he should remember not to urge it as being dishonourable, and should avoid the practice of certain declaimers who urge Sextus Pompeius to piracy just because it is dishonourable and cruel. Even when we address bad men, we should gloss over what is unsightly. For there is no man so evil as to wish to seem so. |
| 999 |
Neque enim quisquam est tam malus , ut videri velit . Sic Catilina apud Sallustium loquitur , ut rem sceleratissimam non militia , sed indignatione videatur audere . Sic Atreus apud Varium : — " Iam fero ( inquit ) infandissima " , " Iam facere cogor . " Quanto magis eis , quibus cura famae fuit , conservandus est hic velut ambitus ?
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Thus Sallust makes Catiline speak as one who is driven to crime not by wickedness but by indignation, and Varius makes Atreus say: "My wrongs are past all speech, And such shall be the deeds they force me to." How much more has this pretence of honour to be kept up by those who have a real regard for their own good name! |
| 1000 |
Quare et , cum Ciceroni dabimus consilium , ut Antonium roget , vel etiam ut Philippicas ( ita vitam pollicente eo ) exurat , non cupiditatem lucis allegabimus ( haec enim si valet in animo eius , tacentibus quoque nobis valet ) , sed ut reipublicae se servet hortabimur .
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Therefore when we advise Cicero to beg Antonius for mercy or even to burn the Philippics if Antonius promises to spare him on that condition, we shall not empliasise the love of life in our advice (for if that passion has any force with him, it will have it none the less if we are silent), but we shall exhort him to save himself in the interest of the state. |
| 1001 |
Hac illi opus est occasione , ne eum talium precum pudeat . Et C . Caesari suadentes regnum adfirmabimus stare iam rempublicam nisi uno regente non posse . Nam qui de re nefaria deliberat , id solum quaerit , quomodo quam minimum peccare videatur .
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For he needs some such reason as that to preserve him from feeling shame at entreating such a one as Antony. Again if we urge Gaius Caesar to accept the crown we shall assert that the state is doomed to destruction unless controlled by a monarchy. For the sole aim of the man who is deliberating about committing a criminal act is to make his act appear as little wicked as possible. |
| 1002 |
Multum refert etiam , quae sit persona suadentis ; quia anteacta vita si illustris fuit aut clarius genus aut aetas aut fortuna adfert expectationem , providendum est , ne quae dicuntur ab eo qui dicit dissentiant . At his contraria summissiorem quendam modum postulant . Nam quae in aliis libertas est , in aliis licentia vocatur , et quibusdam sufficit auctoritas , quosdam ratio ipsa aegre tuetur .
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It also makes a great deal of difference who it is that is offering the advice: for if his past has been illustrious, or if his distinguished birth or age or fortune excite high expectations, care must be taken that his words are not unworthy of him. If on the other hand he has none of these advantages he will have to adopt a humbler tone. For what is regarded as liberty in some is called licence in others. Some receive sufficient support from their personal authority, while others find that the force of reason itself is scarce sufficient to enable them to maintain their position. |
| 1003 |
Ideoque longe mihi difficillimae videntur prosopopoeiae , in quibus ad reliquum suasoriae laborem accedit etiam personae difficultas . Namque idem illud aliter Caesar , aliter Cicero , aliter Cato suadere debebit . Utilissima vero haec exercitatio , vel quod duplicis est operis , vel quod poetis quoque aut historiarum futuris scriptoribus plurimum confert . Verum et oratoribus necessaria .
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Consequently I regard impersonation as the most difficult of tasks, imposed as it is in addition to the other work involved by a deliberative theme. For the same speaker has on one occasion to impersonate Caesar, on another Cicero or Cato. But it is a most useful exercise because it demands a double effort and is also of the greatest use to future poets and historians, while for orators of course it is absolutely necessary. |
| 1004 |
Nam sunt multae a Graecis Latinisque compositae orationes , quibus alii uterentur , ad quorum condicionem vitamque aptanda quae dicebantur fuerunt . An eodem modo cogitavit aut eandem personam induit Cicero , cum scriberet Cn . Pompeio et cum T . Ampio ceterisve ; ac non uniuscuiusque eorum fortunam , dignitatem , res gestas intuitus omnium , quibus vocem dabat , etiam imagine expressit ? ut melius quidem sed tamen ipsi dicere viderentur .
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For there are many speeches composed by Greek and Latin orators for others to deliver, the words of which had to be adapted to suit the position and character of those for whom they were written. Do you suppose that Cicero thought in the same way or assumed the same character when he wrote for Gnaeus Pompeius and when he wrote for Titus Ampius and the rest? Did he not rather bear in mind the fortune, rank and achievements of each single individual and represent the character of all to whom he gave a voice so that though they spoke better than they could by nature, they still might seem to speak in their own persons? |
| 1005 |
Neque enim minus vitiosa est oratio , si ab homine quam si ab re , cui accommodari debuit , dissidet ; ideoque Lysias optime videtur in iis , quae scribebat indoctis , servasse veritatis fidem . Enimvero praecipue declamatoribus considerandum est , quid cuique personae conveniat , qui paucissimas controversias ita dicunt ut advocati , plerumque filii , parentes , divites , senes , asperi , lenes , avari , denique superstitiosi , timidi , derisores fiunt ; ut vix comoediarum actoribus plures habitus in pronuntiando concipiendi sint quam his in dicendo .
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For a speech which is out of keeping with the man who delivers it is just as faulty as the speech which fails to suit the subject to which it should conform. It is for this reason that Lysias is regarded as having shown the highest art in the speeches which he wrote for uneducated persons, on account of their extraordinary realism. In the case of declaimers indeed it is of the first importance that they should consider what best suits each character: for they rarely play the role of advocates in their declamations. As a rule they impersonate sons, parents, rich men, old men, gentle or harsh of temper, misers, superstitious persons, cowards and mockers, so that hardly even comic actors have to assume more numerous roles in their performances on the stage than these in their declamations. |
| 1006 |
Quae omnia possunt videri prosopopoeiae , quam ego suasoriis subieci , quia nullo alio ab iis quam persona distat . Quanquam haec aliquando etiam in controversias ducitur , quae ex historiis compositae certis agentium nominibus continentur .
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All these rôles may be regarded as forming part of impersonation, which I have included under delibertive themes, from which it differs merely in that it involves the assumption of a role. It is sometimes introduced even with controversial themes, which are drawn from history and involve the appearance of definite historical characters as pleaders. |
| 1007 |
Neque ignoro plerumnque exercitationis gratia poni et poeticas et historicas , ut Priami verba apud Achillem aut Sullae dictaturam deponentis in contione . Sed haec in partem cedent trium generum , in quae causas divisimus . Nam et rogare , indicare , rationem reddere et alia , de quibus supra dictum est , varie atque ut res tulit in materia iudiciali , deliberativa , demonstrativa , solemus .
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I am aware also that historical and poetical themes are often set for the sake of practice, such as Priam's speech to Achilles or Sulla's address to the people on his resignation of the dictatorship. But these will fall under one or other of the three classes into which I have divided causes. For entreaty, statement, and argument, with other themes already mentioned, are all of frequent occurrence in forensic, deliberative or demonstrative subjects, according as circumstances demand, |
| 1008 |
Frequentissime vero in iis utimur ficta personarum , quas ipsi substituimus , oratione , ut apud Ciceronem pro Caelio Clodiam et Caecus Appius et Clodius frater , ille in castigationem , hic in exhortationem vitiorum compositus , alloquitur .
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and we often introduce fictitious speeches of historical persons, whom we select ourselves. Cicero for instance in the pro Caelio makes both Appius Caecus and her brother Clodius address Clodia, the former rebuking her for her immorality, the latter exhorting her thereto. |
| 1009 |
Solent in scholis fingi materiae ad deliberandum similiores controversiis et ex utroque genere commixtae , ut cum apud C . Caesarem consultatio de poena Theodoti ponitur . Constat enim accusatione et defensione causa eius , quod est iudicialium proprium .
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In scholastic declamations the fictitious themes for deliberative speeches are often not unlike those of controversial speeches and are a compromise between the two forms, as for instance when the theme set is a discussion in the presence of Gaius Caesar of the punishment to be meted out to Theodotus; for it consists of accusation and defence, both of them peculiar to forensic oratory. |
| 1010 |
Permixta tamen est et utilitatis ratio , an pro Caesare fuerit occidi Pompeium , an timendum a rege bellum , si Theodotus sit occisus , an id minime opportunum hoc tempore et periculosum et certe longum sit futurum .
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But the topic of expediency also enters into the case, in such questions as whether it was to Caesar's advantage that Pompeius should be slain; whether the execution of Theodotus would involve the risk of a war with the king of Egypt; whether such a war would be highly inopportune at such a critical moment, would prove dangerous and be certain to last a long time. |
| 1011 |
Quaeritur et de honesto , deceatne Caesarem ultio Pompeii , an sit verendum , ne peiorem faciat suarum partium causam , si Pompeium indignum morte fateatur .
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There is also a question of honour. Does it befit Caesar to avenge Pompeius' death? or is it to be feared that an admission that Pompeius did not deserve death will injure the cause of the Caesarian party? |
| 1012 |
Quod genus accidere etiam veritati potest . Non simplex autem circa suasorias error in plerisque declamatoribus fuit , qui dicendi genus in iis diversum atque in totum illi iudiciali contrarium esse existimaverunt . Nam et principia abrupta et concitatam semper orationem et in verbis effusiorem , ut ipsi vocant , cultum adfectaverunt , et earum breviores utique commentarios quam legalis materiae facere laborarunt .
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It may be noted that discussions of such a kind may well occur in actual cases. Declaimers have however often been guilty of an error as regards deliberative themes which has involved a series of consequences. They have considered deliberative themes to be different and absolutely opposed to forensic themes. For they have always affected abrupt openings, an impetuous style and a generous embellishment, as they call it, in their language, and have been especially careful to make shorter notes for deliberative than for forensic themes. |
| 1013 |
Ego porro ut prooemio video non utique opus esse suasoriis , propter quas dixi supra causas , ita cur initio furioso sit exclamandum , non intelligo ; cum proposita consultatione rogatus sententiam , si modo est sanus , non quiritet , sed quam maxime potest civili et humano ingressu mereri adsensum deliberantis velit .
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For my part while I realise that deliberative themes do not require an exordium, for reasons which I have already stated, I do not, however, understand why they should open in such a wild and exclamatory manner. When a man is asked to express his opinion on any subject, he does not, if he is sane, begin to shriek, but endeavours as far as possible to win the assent of the man who is considering the question by a courteous and natural opening. |
| 1014 |
Cur autem torrens et utique aequaliter concitata sit in ea dicentis oratio , cum vel praecipue moderationem consilia desiderent ? Neque ego negaverim , saepius subsidere in controversiis impetum dicendi prooemio , narratione , argumentis ; quae si detrahas , id fere supererit , quo suasoriae constant , verum id quoque aequalius erit non tumultuosius atque turbidius .
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Why, I ask, in review of the fact that deliberations require moderation above all else, should the speaker on such themes indulge in a torrential style of eloquence kept at one high level of violence? I acknowledge that in controversial speeches the tone is often lowered in the exordium, the statement of facts and the argument, and that if you subtract these three portions, the remainder is more or less of the deliberative type of speech, but what remains must likewise be of a more even flow, avoiding all violence and fury. |
| 1015 |
Verborum autem magnificentia non validius est adfectanda suasorias declamantibus , sed contingit magis ; nam et personae fere magnae fingentibus placent , regum , principum , senatus , populi et res ampliores ; ita cum verba rebus aptentur , ipso materiae nitore clarescunt .
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With regard to manificence of language, deliblerative declaimers should avoid straining after it more than others, but it comes to them more naturally. For there is a preference among those who invent such themes for selecting great personages, such as kings, princes, senators and peoples, while the theme itself is generally on a grander scale. Consequently since the words are suited to the theme, they acquire additional splendour from the magnificence of the matter. |
| 1016 |
Alia veris consiliis ratio est , ideoque Theophrastus quam maxime remotum ab omni adfectione in deliberativo genere voluit esse sermonem , secutus in hoc auctoritatem praeceptoris sui , quanquam dissentire ab eo non timide solet .
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In actual deliberations the case is different, and consequently Theophrastus laid it down that in the deliberative class of oratory the language should as far as possible be free from all affectation: in stating this view he followed the authority of his instructor, although as a rule he is not afraid to differ from him. For Aristotle |
| 1017 |
Namque Aristoteles idoneam maxime ad scribendum demonstrativam proximamque ab ea iudicialem putavit , videlicet quoniam prior ilia tota esset ostentationis , haec secunda egeret artis , vel ad fallendum , si ita poposcisset utilitas , consilia fide prudentiaque constarent .
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held that the demonstrative type of oratory was the best suited for writing and that the next best was forensic oratory: his reason for this view was that the first type is entirely concerned with display, while the second requires art, which will even be employed to deceive the audience, if expedience should so demand, whereas advice requires only truth and prudence. |
| 1018 |
Quibus in demonstrativa consentio , nam et omnes alii scriptores idem tradiderunt ; in iudiciis autem consiliisque secundum condicionem ipsius , quae tractabitur , rei accommodandam dicendi credo rationem .
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I agree with this view as regards demonstrative oratory (in fact all writers are agreed on this point), but as regards forensic and deliberative themes I think that the style must be suited to the requirements of the subject which has to be treated. |
| 1019 |
Nam et Philippicas Demosthenis iisdem quibus habitas in iudiciis orationes video eminere virtutibus , et Ciceronis sententiae et contiones non minus clarum , quam est in accusationibus ac defensionibus , eloquentiae lumen ostendunt . Dicit tamen idem de suasoria hoc modo : Tota autem oratio simplex et gravis et sententiis debet ornatior esse quam verbis .
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For I notice that the Philippics of Demosthenes are pre-eminent for the same merits as his forensic speeches, and that the opinions expressed by Cicero before the senate or the people are as remarkable for the splendour of their eloquence as the speeches which he delivered in accusing or defending persons before the courts. And yet Cicero says of deliberative oratory that the whole speech should be simple and dignified, and should derive its ornament rather from the sentiments expressed than the actual words. |
| 1020 |
Usum exemplorum nulli materiae magis convenire merito fere omnes consentiunt , cum plerumque videantur respondere futura praeteritis , habeaturque experimentum velut quoddam rationis testimonium .
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As regards the use of examples practically all authorities are with good reason agreed that there is no subject to which they are better suited, since as a rule history seems to repeat itself and the experience of the past is a valuable support to reason. |
| 1021 |
Brevitas quoque aut copia non materiae genere sed modo constat . Nam ut in consiliis plerumque simplicior quaestio est , ita saepe in causis minor . Quae omnia vera esse sciet , si quis non orationes modo , sed historias etiam ( namque in iis contiones atque sententiae plerumque suadendi ac dissuadendi funguntur officio ) , legere maluerit quam in commentariis rhetorum consenescere .
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Brevity and copiousness are determined not so much by the nature as by the compass of the subject. For, just as in deliberations the question is generally less complicated, so in forensic cases it is often of less importance. Anyone who is content to read not merely speeches, but history as well, in preference to growing grey over the notebooks of the rhetoricians, will realise the truth of what I say: for in the historians the speeches delivered to the people and the opinions expressed in the senate often provide examples of advice and dissuasion. |
| 1022 |
Inveniet enim nec in consiliis abrupta initia et concitatius saepe in iudiciis dictum et verba aptata rebus in utroque genere et breviores aliquando causarum orationes quam sententiarum .
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he will find an avoidance of abrupt openings in deliberatire speeches and will note that the forensic style is often the more impetuous of the two, while in both cases the words are suited to the matter and forensic speeches are often shorter than deliberative. |
| 1023 |
Ne illa quidem in iis vitia deprehendet , quibus quidam declamatores laborant , quod et contra sentientibus inhumane conviciantur et ita plerumque dicunt , tanquam ab iis qui deliberant utique dissentiant , ideoque obiurgantibus similiores sunt quam suadentibus .
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Nor will he find in them those faults into which some of our declaimers fall, namely a coarse abuse of those who hold opposite opinions and a general tendency to speak in such a way as to make it seem that the speaker's views are in opposition to those of the persons who ask his advice. Consequently their aim seems to be invective rather than persuasion. |
| 1024 |
Haec adolescentes sibi scripta sciant , ne aliter quam dicturi sunt exerceri velint et in desuescendis morentur . Ceterum , cum advocari coeperint in consilia amicorum , dicere sententiam in senatu , suadere si quid consulet princeps , quod praeceptis fortasse non credunt , usu docebuntur .
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I would have my younger readers realise that these words are penned for their special benefit that they may not desire to adopt a different style in their exercises from that in which they will be required to speak, and may not be hampered by having to unlearn what they have acquired. For the rest if they are ever summoned to take part in the counsels of their friends, or to speak their opinions in the senate, or advise the emperor on some point on which he may consult them, they will learn from practice what they cannot perhaps put to the credit of the schools. |
| 1025 |
Nunc de iudiciali genere , quod est praecipue multiplex , sed officiis constat duobus intentionis ac depulsionis . Cuius partes , ut plurimis auctoribus placuit , quinque sunt : prooemium , narratio , probatio , refutatio , peroratio . His adiecerunt quidam partitionem , propositionem , excessum ; quarum priores duae probationi succedunt .
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IX. I now come to the forensic kind of oratory, which presents the utmost variety, but whose duties are no more than two, the bringing and rebutting of charges. Most authorities divide the forensic speech into five parts: the exordium, the statement of facts, the proof, the refutation, and the peroration. To these some have added the partition into heads, proposition and digression, the two first of which form part of the proof. |
| 1026 |
Nam proponere quidem , quae sis probaturus , necesse est , sed et concludere ; cur igitur si illa pars causae est , non et haec sit ? Partitio vero dispositionis est species , ipsa dispositio pars rhetorices et per omnes materias totumque earum corpus aequaliter fusa , sicut inuentio , elocutio .
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For it is obviously necessary to propound what you are going to prove as well as to conclude. Why then, if proposition is a part of a speech, should not conclusion be also? Partition on the other hand is merely one aspect of arrangement, and arrangement is a part of rhetoric itself, and is equally distributed through every theme of oratory and their whole body, just as are invention and style. |