Institutio Oratoria (Quintilian)

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	Institutio Oratoria Author: Quintilian	Translator: Harold Edgeworth Butler
1065	Theodori schola , ut dixi , omnia refert ad capita . His plura intelliguntur : uno modo summa quaestio item ut status , altero ceterae quae ad summam referuntur , tertio propositio cum adfirmatione ; ut dicimus , Caput rei est , apud Menandrum κεφάλαιόν ἐστιν . In universum autem , quidquid probandum est , erit caput ; sed id maius aut minus . Et quoniam , quae de his erant a scriptoribus artium tradita ,	The school of Theodorus, as I have said, groups everything under heads, by which they mean several things. First they mean the main question, which is to be identified with the basis; secondly they mean the other questions dependent on the main question, thirdly the proposition and the statement of the proofs. The word is used as we use it when we say "It is the head of the whole business," or, as Menander says, κεφάλαιόν ἐστιν. But generally speaking, anything which has to be proved will be a head of varying degrees of importance. I have now set forth the principles laid down by the writers of text-books,
1066	verbosius etiam quam necesse erat exposuimus , praeterea , quae partes essent iudicialium causarum , supra dictum est , proximus liber a prima , id est exordio incipiet .	though I have done so at a greater length than was necessary. I have also explained what are the various parts of forensic causes. My next book therefore shall deal with the exordium.
1067	Liber IV perfecto , Marcelle Victori , operis tibi dedicati tertio libro et iam quarta fere laboris parte transacta , nova insuper mihi diligentiae causa et altior sollicitudo , quale iudicium hominum emererer , accessit . Adhuc enim velut studia inter nos conferebamus , et si parum nostra institutio probaretur a ceteris , contenti fore domestico usu videbamur , ut tui meique filii formare disciplinam satis putaremus .	Book IV I have now, my dear Marcellus Victorius, completed the third book of the work which I have dedicated to you, and have nearly finished a quarter of my task, and am confronted with a motive for renewed diligence and increased anxiety as to the judgment it may be found to deserve. For up to this point we were merely discussing rhetoric between ourselves and, in the event of our system being regarded as inadequate by the world at large, were prepared to content ourselves with putting it into practice at home and to confine ourselves to the education of your son and mine.
1068	Cum vero mihi Domitianus Augustus sororis suae nepotum delegaverit curam , non satis honorem iudiciorum caelestium intelligam , nisi ex hoc oneris quoque magnitudinem metiar .	But now Domitianus Augustus has entrusted me with the education of his sister's grandsons, and I should be undeserving of the honour conferred upon me by such divine appreciation, if I were not to regard this distinction as the standard by which the greatness of my undertaking must be judged.
1069	Quis enim mihi aut mores excolendi sit modus , ut eos non immerito probaverit sanctissimus censor ? aut studia , ne fefellisse in iis videar principem ut in omnibus , ita in eloquentia quoque eminentissimum ?	For it is clearly my duty to spare no pains in moulding the character of my august pupils, that they may earn the deserved approval of the most righteous of censors. The same applies to their intellectual training, for I would not be found to have disappointed the expectations of a prince pre-eminent in eloquence as in all other virtues.
1070	Quodsi nemo miratur poetas maximos saepe fecisse , ut non solum initiis operum suorum Musas invocarent , sed provecti quoque longius , cum ad aliquem graviorem venissent locum , repeterent vota et velut nova precatione uterentur ,	But no one is surprised at the frequency with which the greatest poets invoke the Muses not merely at the commencement of their works, but even further on when they have reached some important passage and repeat their vows and utter fresh prayers for assistance.
1071	mihi quoque profecto poterit ignosci , si , quod initio , quo primum hanc materiam inchoavi , non feceram , nunc omnes in auxilium deos ipsumque in primis , quo neque praesentius aliud nec studiis magis propitium numen est , invocem , ut , quantum nobis exspectationis adiecit , tantum ingenii adspiret dexterque ac volens adsit et me qualem esse credidit faciat .	Assuredly therefore I may ask indulgence for doing what I omitted to do when I first entered on this task and calling to my aid all the gods and Himself before them all (for his power is unsurpassed and there is no deity that looks with such favour upon learning), beseeching him to inspire me with genius in proportion to the hopes that he has raised in me, to lend me propitious and ready aid and make me even such as he has believed me to be.
1072	Cuius mihi religionis non haec sola ratio , quae maxima est , sed alioqui sic procedit ipsum opus , ut maiora praeteritis ac magis ardua sint , quae ingredior . Sequitur enim , ut iudicialium causarum , quae sunt maxime variae ac multiplices , ordo explicetur : quod prooemii sit officium , quae ratio narrandi , quae probationum fides , seu proposita confirmamus sive contra dicta dissolvimus , quanta vis in perorando , seu reficienda brevi repetitione rerum memoria est iudicis sive adfectus ( quod est longe potentissimum ) commovendi .	And this, though the greatest, is not the only motive for this act of religious devotion, but my work is of such a nature that, as it proceeds, I am confronted with greater and more arduous obstacles than have yet faced me. For my next task is to explain the order to be followed in forensic causes, which present the utmost complication and variety. I must set forth the function of the exordium, the method of the statement of facts, the cogency of proofs, whether we are confirming our own assertions or refuting those of our opponents, and the force of the peroration, whether we have to refresh the memory of the judge by a brief recapitulation of the facts, or to do what is far more effective, stir his emotions.
1073	De quibus partibus singulis quidam separatim scribere maluerunt velut onus totius corporis veriti , et sic quoque complures de una quaque earum libros ediderunt ; quas ego omnes ausus contexere prope infinitum laborem prospicio et ipsa cogitatione suscepti muneris fatigor . Sed durandum est , quia coepimus , et si viribus deficiemur , animo tamen perseverandum .	Some have preferred to give each of these points separate treatment, fearing that if they undertook them as a whole the burden would be greater than they could bear, and consequently have published several books on each individual point. I have ventured to treat them altogether and foresee such infinite labour that I feel weary at the very thought of the task I have undertaken. But I have set my hand to the plough and must not look back. My strength may fail me, but my courage must not fail.
1074	Quod principium Latine vel exordium dicitur , maiore quadam ratione Graeci videntur προοίμιον nominasse , quia a nostris initium modo significatur , illi satis dare partem hanc esse ante ingressum rei de qua dicendum sit , ostendunt .	I. The commencement or exorditum as we call it in Latin is styled a proem by the Greeks. This seems to me a more appropriate name, because whereas we merely indicate that we are beginning our task, they clearly show that this portion is designed as an introduction to the subject on which the orator has to speak.
1075	Nam sive propterea quod οἴμη cantus est et citharoedi pauca illa , quae , antequam legitimum certamen inchoent , emerendi favoris gratia canunt , prooemium cognominaverunt , oratores quoque ea quae , priusquam causam exordiantur , ad conciliandos sibi iudicum animos praeloquuntur eadem appellatione signarunt ;	It may be because οἴμη means a tune, and players on the lyre have given the name of proem to the prelude which they perform to win the favour of the audience before entering upon the regular contest for the prize, that orators before beginning to plead make a few introductory remarks to win the indulgence of the judges.
1076	sive , quod οἶμον iidem Graeci viam appellant , id quod ante ingressum rei ponitur sic vocare est institutum : certe prooemium est , quod apud iudicem dici , priusquam causam cognoverit , possit ; vitioseque in scholis facimus , quod exordio semper sic utimur , quasi causam iudex iam noverit .	Or it may be because οἶμος in Greek means a way, that the practice has arisen of calling an introduction a proem. But in any case there can be no doubt that by proem we mean the portion of a speech addressed to the judge before he has begun to consider the actual case. And it is a mistaken practice which we adopt in the schools of always assuming in our exordia that the judge is already acquainted with the case.
1077	Cuius rei licentia ex hoc est , quod ante declamationem illa velut imago litis exponitur Sed in foro quoque contingere istud principiorum genus secundis actionibus potest ; primis quidem raro unquam , nisi forte apud eum , cui res iam aliunde nota sit , dicimus .	This form of licence arises from the fact that a sketch of the case is always given before actual declamation. Such kinds of exordia may, however, be employed in the courts, when a case comes on for the second time, but never or rarely on the first occasion, unless we are speaking before a judge who has knowledge of the case from some other source.
1078	Causa principii nulla alia est , quam ut auditorem , quo sit nobis in ceteris partibus accommodatior , praeparemus . Id fieri tribus maxime rebus inter auctores plurimos constat , si benevolum , attentum , docilem fecerimus , non quia ista non per totam actionem sint custodienda , sed quia initiis praecipue necessaria , per quae in animum iudicis , ut procedere ultra possimus , admittimur .	The sole purpose of the exordium is to prepare our audience in such a way that they will be disposed to lend a ready ear to the rest of our speech. The majority of authors agree that this is best effected in three ways, by making the audience well-disposed, attentive and ready to receive instruction. I need hardly say that these aims have to be kept in view throughout the whole speech, but they are especially necessary at the commencement, when we gain admission to the mind of the judge in order to penetrate still further.
1079	Benevolentiam aut a personis ducimus aut a causis accipimus . Sed personarum non est , ut plerique crediderunt , triplex ratio , ex litigatore et adversario et iudice .	As regards good-will, we secure that either from persons connected with the case or from the case itself. Most writers have divided these persons into three classes, the plaintiff, the defendant and the judge.
1080	Nam exordium duci nonnunquam etiam ab actore causae solet . Quanquam enim pauciora de se ipso dicit et parcius , plurimum tamen ad omnia momenti est in hoc positum , si vir bonus creditur . Sic enim continget , ut non studium advocati videatur adferre sed paene testis fidem . Quare in primis existimetur venisse ad agendum ductus officio vel cognationis vel amicitiae maximeque , si fieri poterit , reipublicae aut alicuius certe non mediocris exempli . Quod sine dubio multo magis ipsis litigatoribus faciendum est , ut ad agendum magna atque honesta ratione aut etiam necessitate accessisse videantur .	This classification is wrong, for the exordium may sometimes derive its conciliatory force from the person of the pleader. For although he may be modest and say little about himself, yet if he is believed to be a good man, this consideration will exercise the strongest influence at every point of the case. For thus he will have the good fortune to give the impression not so much that he is a zealous advocate as that he is an absolutely reliable witness. It is therefore pre-eminently desirable that he should be believed to have undertaken the case out of a sense of duty to a friend or relative, or even better, if the point can be made, by a sense of patriotism or at any rate some serious moral consideration. No doubt it is even more necessary for the parties themselves to create the impression that they have been forced to take legal action by some weighty and honourable reason or even by necessity.
1081	Sed ut praecipua in hoc dicentis auctoritas , si omnis in subeundo negotio suspicio sordium aut odiorum aut ambitionis afuerit , ita quaedam in his quoque commendatio tacita , si nos infirmos , imparatos , impares agentium contra ingeniis dixerimus , qualia sunt pleraque Messalae prooemia .	But just as the authority of the speaker carries greatest weight, if his undertaking of the case is free from all suspicion of meanness, personal spite or ambition, so also we shall derive some silent support from representing that we are weak, unprepared, and no match for the powerful talents arrayed against us, a frequent trick in the exordia of Messala.
1082	Est enim naturalis favor pro laborantibus , et iudex religiosus libentissime patronum audit , quem iustitiae suae minime timet . Inde illa veterum circa occultandam eloquentiam simulatio multum ab hac nostrorum temporum iactatione diversa .	For men have a natural prejudice in favour of those who are struggling against difficulties, and a scrupulous judge is always specially ready to listen to an advocate whom he does not suspect to have designs on his integrity. Hence arose the tendency of ancient orators to pretend to conceal their eloquence, a practice exceedingly unlike the ostentation of our own times.
1083	Vitandum etiam , ne contumeliosi , maligni , superbi , maledici in quemquam hominem ordinemve videamur praecipueque eorum , qui laedi nisi adversa iudicum voluntate non possunt .	It is also important to avoid giving the impression that we are abusive, malignant, proud or slanderous toward any individual or body of men, especially such as cannot be hurt without exciting the disapproval of the judges.
1084	Nam in iudicem ne quid dicatur non modo palam sed quod omnino intelligi possit , stultum erat monere , nisi fieret . Etiam partis adversae patronus dabit exordio materiam , interim cum honore , si eloquentiam eius et gratiam nos timere fingendo , ut ea suspecta sint iudici , fecerimus , interim per contumeliam , sed hoc perquam raro , ut Asinius pro Urbiniae heredibus Labienum adversarii patronum inter argumenta causae malae posuit . Negat haec esse prooemia Cornelius Celsus , quia sint extra litem .	As to the judge, it would be folly for me to warn speakers not to say or even hint anything against him, but for the fact that such things do occur. Our opponent's advocate will sometimes provide us with material for our exordium: we may speak of him in honorific terms, pretending to fear his eloquence and influence with a view to rendering them suspect to the judge, or occasionally, though very seldom, we may abuse him, as Asinius did in his speech on behalf of the heirs of Urbinia, where he includes among the proofs of the weakness of the plaintiff's case the fact that he has secured Labienus as his advocate.
1085	Sed ego cum auctoritate summorum oratorum magis ducor , tum pertinere ad causam puto quidquid ad dicentem pertinet , cum sit naturale , ut iudices iis , quos libentius audiunt , etiam facilius credant .	Cornelius Celsus denies that such remarks can be considered as belonging to the exordium on the ground that they are irrelevant to the actual case. Personally I prefer to follow the authority of the greatest orators, and hold that whatever concerns the pleader is relevant to the case, since it is natural that the judges should give readier credence to those to whom they find it a pleasure to listen.
1086	Ipsius autem litigatoris persona tractanda varie est . Nam tum dignitas eius adlegatur , tum commendatur infirmitas . Nonnunquam contingit relatio meritorum , de quibus verecundius dicendum erit sua quam aliena laudanti . Multum agit sexus , aetas , condicio , ut in feminis , senibus , pupillis , liberos , parentes , coniuges adlegantibus . Nam sola rectum quoque iudicem inclinat miseratio .	The character of our client himself may, too, be treated in various ways: we may emphasise his worth or we may commend his weakness to the protection of the court. Sometimes it is desirable to set forth his merits, when the speaker will be less hampered by modesty than if he were praising his own. Sex, age and situation are also important considerations, as for instance when women, old men or wards are pleading in the character of wives, parents or children.
1087	Degustanda tamen haec prooemio , non consumenda . Adversarii vero persona prope iisdem omnibus , sed e contrario ductis impugnari solet . Nam et potentes sequitur invidia et humiles abiectosque contemptus et turpes ac nocentes odium , quae tria sunt ad alienandos iudicum animos potentissima .	For pity alone may move even a strict judge. These points, however, should only be lightly touched upon in the exordium, not run to death. As regards our opponent he is generally attacked on similar lines, but with the method reversed. For power is generally attended by envy, abject meanness by contempt, guilt and baseness by hatred, three emotions which are powerful factors to alienate the good-will of the judges.
1088	Neque haec dicere sat est , quod datur etiam imperitis ; pleraque augenda aut minuenda , ut expediet . Hoc enim oratoris est , illa causae .	But a simple statement will not suffice, for even the uneducated are capable of that: most of the points will require exaggeration or extenuation as expediency may demand: the method of treatment belongs to the orator, the points themselves belong to the case. We shall win the good-will of the judge not merely by praising him,
1089	Iudicem conciliabimus nobis non tantum laudando eum , quod et fieri cum modo debet et est tamen parti utrique commune , sed si laudem eius ad utilitatem causae nostrae coniunxerimus , ut adlegemus pro honestis dignitatem illi suam , pro humilibus iustitiam , pro infelicibus misericordiam , pro laesis severitatem et similiter cetera .	which must be done with tact and is an artifice common to both parties, but by linking his praise to the furtherance of our own case. For instance, in pleading for a man of good birth we shall appeal to his own high rank, in speaking for the lowly we shall lay stress on his sense of justice, on his pity in pleading the cause of misfortune, and on his severity when we champion the victims of wrong, and so on.
1090	Mores quoque , si fieri potest , iudicis velim nosse . Nam prout asperi , lenes , iucundi , graves , duri , remissi erunt , aut adsumere in causam naturas eorum , qua competent , aut mitigare , qua repugnabunt , oportebit . Accidit autem interim hoc quoque ,	I should also wish, if possible, to be acquainted with the character of the judge. For it will be desirable to enlist their temperaments in the service of our cause, where they are such as are like to be useful, or to mollify them, if they are like to prove adverse, just according as they are harsh, gentle, cheerful, grave, stern, or easy-going. It will, however,
1091	ut aut nobis inimicus aut adversariis sit amicus qui iudicat ; quae res utrique parti tractanda est ac nescio an etiam ei magis , in quam videatur propensior . Est enim nonnunquam pravis hic ambitus adversus amicos aut pro iis , quibuscum simultates gerant , pronuntiandi faciendique iniuste , ne fecisse videantur .	sometimes happen that the judge is hostile to us and friendly to our adversaries. Such cases demand the attention of both parties and I am not sure that the party favoured by the judge does not require to handle the situation with even more care than his opponent. For perverse judges have sometimes a preposterous tendency to give judgment against their friends or in favour of those with whom they have a quarrel, and of committing injustice merely to avoid the appearance of partiality.
1092	Fuerunt etiam quidam rerum suarum iudices . Nam et in libris Observationum a Septimio editis adfuisse Ciceronem tali causae invenio , et ego pro regina Berenice apud ipsam eam causam dixi . Similis hic quoque superioribus ratio est . Adversarius enim fiduciam partis suae iactat , patronus timet cognoscentis verecundiam .	Again some have been judges in cases where their own interests were involved. I note, for instance, in the books of observations published by Septimius that Cicero appeared in such a case, while I myself, when I appeared on behalf of Queen Berenice, actually pleaded before her. In such cases we must be guided by the same principles that I have laid down above. The opponent of the judge will emphasise his confidence in the justice of his client's cause, while the advocate of his interests will express the fear that the judge may be influenced by a quixotic delicacy.
1093	Praeterea detrahenda vel confirmanda opinion , praecipue si quam domo videbitur iudex attulisse . Metus etiam nonnunquam est amovendus , ut Cicero pro Milone , ne arma Pompeii disposita contra se putarent , laboravit ; nonnunquam adhibendus , ut idem in Verrem facit .	Further, if the judge is thought to have come into court with a prejudice in favour of one side, we must try to remove or strengthen that prejudice as circumstances may demand. Again occasionally we shall have to calm the judges' fears, as Cicero does in the pro Milone, where he strives to persuade them not to think that Pompey's soldiers have been stationed in the court as a threat to themselves. Or it may be necessary to frighten them, as Cicero does in the Verrines.
1094	Sed adhibendi modus alter ille frequens et favorabilis : ne male sentiat populus Romanus , ne iudicia transferantur ; alter autem asper et rarus , quo minatur corruptis accusationem , et id quidem in consilio ampliore utcunque tutius ; nam et mali inhibentur et boni gaudent ; apud singulos vero nunquam suaserim , nisi defecerint omnia .	There are two ways of bringing fear to bear upon the judges. The commonest and most popular is to threaten them with the displeasure of the Roman people or the transference of the juries to another class ; the second is somewhat brutal and is rarely employed, and consists in threatening them with a prosecution for bribery: this is a method which is fairly safe with a large body of judges, since it checks the bad and pleases the good members of the jury, but I should never recommend its employment with a single judge except in the very last resort.
1095	Quod si necessitas exigit , non erit iam ex arte oratoria , non magis quam appellare , etiamsi id quoque saepe utile est , aut , antequam pronuntiet , reum facere ; nam et minari et deferre etiam non orator potest .	But if necessity should drive us to such a course, we must remember that such threats do not come under the art of oratory, any more than appeals from the judgment of the court (though that is often useful), or the indictment of the judge before he gives his decision. For even one who is no orator can threaten or lay an information.
1096	Si causa conciliandi nobis iudicis materiam dabit , ex hac potissimum aliqua in usum principii , quae maxime favorabilia videbuntur , decerpi oportebit . Quo in loco Verginius fallitur , qui Theodoro placere tradit , ut ex singulis quaestionibus singuli sensus in prooemium conferantur .	If the case affords us the means of winning the favour of the judge, it is important that the points which seem most likely to serve to our purpose should be selected for introduction into the exordium. On this subject Verginius falls into error, for he asserts that Theodorus lays down that some one reflexion on each individual question that is involved by the case should be introduced into the exordium. As a matter of fact Theodorus does not say this,
1097	Nam ille non hoc dicit , sed ad potentissimas quaestiones iudicem praeparandum ; in quo vitii nihil erat , nisi in universum id praeciperet , quod nec omnis quaestio patitur nec omnis causa desiderat . Nam protinus a petitore primo loco , dum ignota iudici lis est , quomodo ex quaestionibus ducemus sententias ? nimirum res erunt indicandae prius . Demus aliquas ( nam id exiget ratio nonnunquam ) ; etiamne potentissimas omnes , id est totam causam ? sic erit in prooemio peracta narratio .	but merely that the judge should be prepared for the most important of the questions that are to be raised. There is nothing to object to in this rule, save that he would make it of universal application, whereas it is not possible with every question nor desirable in every case. For instance, seeing that the plaintiff's advocate speaks first, and that till he has spoken the judge is ignorant of the nature of the dispute, how is it possible for us to introduce reflexions relating to all the questions involved? The facts of the case must be stated before that can be done. We may grant that some questions may be mentioned, for that will sometimes be absolutely necessary; but can we introduce all the most important questions, or in other words the whole case? If we do we shall have completed our statement of facts within the limits of the exordium. Again if, as often happens,
1098	Quid vero ? si , ut frequenter accidit , paulo est durior causa , non benevolentia iudicis petenda ex aliis partibus erit , sed non ante conciliato eius animo nuda quaestionum committetur asperitas ? Quae si recte semper initio dicendi tractarentur , nihil prooemio opus esset .	the case is somewhat difficult, surely we should seek to win the good-will of the judge by other portions of our speech sooner than thrust the main questions upon him in all their naked harshness before we have done anything to secure his favour. If the main questions ought always to be treated at the beginning of a speech, we might dispense with the exordium.
1099	Aliqua ergo nonnunquam , quae erunt ad conciliandum nobis iudicem potentissima , non inutiliter interim ex quaestionibus in exordio locabuntur . Quae sint porro in causis favorabilia , enumerare non est necesse , quia et manifesta erunt cognita cuiusque controversiae condicione et omnia colligi in tanta litium varietate non possunt .	We shall then occasionally introduce certain points from the main questions into the exordium, which will exercise a valuable influence in winning the judge to regard us with favour. It is not necessary to enumerate the points which are likely to gain us such favour, because they will be obvious as soon as we have acquainted ourselves with the circumstances of each dispute, while in view of the infinite variety presented by cases it is out of the question to specify them here.
1100	Ut autem haec invenire et augere , ita quod laedit aut omnino repellere aut certe minuere ex causa est . Miseratio quoque aliquando ex eadem venit , sive quid passi sumus grave sive passuri .	Just, however, as it is in the interest of our case to note and amplify these points, so it is also to rebut or at any rate lessen the force of anything that is damaging to our case. Again our case may justify an appeal to compassion with regard to what we have suffered in the past or are likely to suffer.
1101	Neque enim sum in hac opinione , qua quidam , ut eo distare prooemium ab epilogo credam , quod in hoc praeterita , in illo futura dicantur , sed quod in ingressu parcius et modestius praetemptanda sit iudicis misericordia , in epilogo vero liceat totos effundere adfectus et fictam orationem induere personis et defunctos excitare et pignora reorum producere ; quae minus in exordiis sunt usitata .	For I do not share the opinion held by some, that the exordium and the peroration are to be distinguished by the fact that the latter deals with the past, the former with the future. Rather I hold that the difference between them is this: in our opening any preliminary appeal to the compassion of the judge must be made sparingly and with restraint, while in the peroration we may give full rein to our emotions, place fictitious speeches in the mouths of our characters, call the dead to life, and produce the wife or children of the accused in court, practices which are less usual in exordia.
1102	Sed haec , quae supra dixi , non movere tantum , verum ex diverso amoliri quoque prooemio opus est . Ut autem nostrum miserabilem , si vincamur , exitum , ita adversariorum superbum , si vicerint , utile est credi .	But it is the function of the exordium not merely to excite the feelings to which I have alluded, but to do all that is possible to show that our opponent's case is not deserving of them. It is advantageous to create the impression not merely that our fate will be deserving of pity, if we lose, but that our adversary will be swollen with outrageous insolence if he prove successful.