Institutio Oratoria (Quintilian)

[Close]

	Institutio Oratoria Author: Quintilian	Translator: Harold Edgeworth Butler
1521	Verum eadem fictio valet et ad qualitates : Si Catilina cum suo consilio nefariorum hominum , quos secum eduxit hoc de re posset iudicare , condemnaret L . Murenam ; et ad amplificationem : Si hoc tibi inter cenam in illis immanibus poculis tuis accidisset . Sic et , Si respublica vocem haberet .	But fictitious suppositions are also exceedingly useful when we are concerned with the quality of an act : "If Catiline could try this case assisted by a jury composed of those scoundrels whom he led out with him he would condemn Lucius Murena. " It is useful also for amplification : "If this had happened to you during dinner in the midst of your deep potations" ; or again, "If the state could speak."
1522	Has fere sedes accepimus probationum in universum , quas neque generatim tradere sat est , cum ex qualibet earum innumerabilis argumentorum copia oriatur , neque per singulas species exsequi patitur natura rerum , quod qui sunt facere conati , duo pariter subierunt incommoda , ut et nimium dicerent nec tamen totum .	Such in the main are the usual topics of proof as specified by teachers of rhetoric, but it is not sufficient to classify them generically in our instructions, since from each of them there arises an infinite number of arguments, while it is in the very nature of things impossible to deal with all their individual species. Those who have attempted to perform this latter task have exposed themselves in equal degree to two disadvantages, saying too much and yet failing to cover the whole ground.
1523	Inde plurimi , cum in hos inexplicabiles laqueos inciderunt , omnem , etiam quem ex ingenio suo poterant habere , conatum velut adstricti certis legum vinculis perdiderunt , et magistrum respicientes naturam ducem sequi desierunt .	Consequently the majority of students, finding themselves lost in an inextricable maze, have abandoned all individual effort, including even that which their own wits might have placed within their power, as though they were fettered by certain rigid laws, and keeping their eyes fixed upon their master have ceased to follow the guidance of nature.
1524	Nam ut per se non sufficiet scire , omnes probationes aut a personis aut a rebus peti , quia utrumque in plura dividitur , ita ex antecedentibus et iunctis et insequentibus trahenda esse argumenta qui acceperit , num protinus in hoc sit instructus ut , quid in quaque casa ducendum sit ex his , sciat ?	But as it is not in itself sufficient to know that all proofs are drawn either from persons or things, because each of these groups is subdivided into a number of different heads so he who has learned that arguments must be drawn from antecedent, contemporary or subsequent facts will not be sufficiently instructed in the knowledge of the method of handling arguments to understand what arguments are to be drawn from the circumstances of each particular case;
1525	praesertim , cum plurimae probationes in ipso causarum complexu reperiantur , ita ut sint cum alia lite nulla communes , eaeque sint et potentissimae et minime obviae , quia communia ex praeceptis accepimus , propria invenienda sunt .	especially as the majority of proofs are to be found in the special circumstances of individual cases and have no connexion with any other dispute, and therefore while they are the strongest, are also the least obvious, since, whereas we derive what is common to all cases from general rules, we have to discover for ourselves whatever is peculiar to the case which we have in hand.
1526	Hoc genus argumentorum sane dicamus ex circumstantia , quia περίστασιν dicere aliter non possumus , vel ex iis quae cuiusque causae propria sunt : ut in illo adultero sacerdote , qui lege , qua unius servandi potestatem habebat , se ipse servare voluit , proprium controversiae est dicere , Non unum nocentem servabas , quia te dimisso adulteram occidere non licebat . Hoc enim argumentum lex facit , quae prohibet adulteram sine adultero occidere .	This type of argument may reasonably be described as drawn from circumstances, there being no other word to express the Greek περίστασις or from those things which are peculiar to any given case. For instance, in the case of the priest who having committed adultery desired to save his own life by means of the law which gave him the power of saving one life, the appropriate argument to employ against him would run as follows: " You would save more than one guilty person, since, if you were discharged, it would not be lawful to put the adulteress to death. " For such an argument follows from the law forbidding the execution of the adulteress apart from the adulterer.
1527	Et illa , in qua lata lex est , ut argentarii dimidium ex eo quod debebant solverent , creditum suum totum exigerent . Argentarius ab argentario solidum petit . Proprium ex materia est argumentum creditoris , idcirco adiectum esse in lege , ut argentarius totum exigeret ; adversus alios enim non opus fuisse lege , cum omnes praeterquam ab argentariis totum exigendi ius haberent .	Again, take the case falling under the law which lays down that bankers may pay only half of what they owe, while permitted to recover the whole of what they are owed. One banker requires payment of the whole sum owed him by another banker. The appropriate argument supplied by the subject to the creditor is that there was special reason for the insertion of the clause sanctioning the recovery of the whole of a debt by a banker, since there was no need of such a law as against others, inasmuch as all have the right to recover the whole of a debt from any save a banker.
1528	Cum multa autem novantur in omni genere materiae tum praecipue in iis quaestionibus , quae scripto constant , quia vocum est in singulis ambiguitas frequens et adhuc in coniunctis magis .	But while some fresh considerations are bound to present themselves in every kind of subject, this is more especially the case in questions turning on the letter of the law, since not merely individual words, but still more whole phrases are frequently ambiguous.
1529	Et haec ipsa plurium legum aliorumve scriptorum vel congruentium vel repugnantium complexu varientur necesse est , cum res rei aut ius iuris quasi signum est . Non debui tibi pecuniam ; nunquam me appellasti , usuram non accepisti , ultro a me mutuatus es . Lex est , Qui patri proditionis reo non adfuerit , exheres sit . Negat filius , nisi si pater absolutus sit . Quid signi ? Lex altera , Proditionis damnatus cum advocato exulet .	And these considerations must vary according to the complexity of laws and other documents, whether they are in agreement or contradictory, since fact throws light on fact and law on law as in the following argument: " I owed you no money: you never summoned me for debt, you took no interest from me, nay, you actually borrowed money from me. " It is laid down by law that he who refuses to defend his father when accused of treason thereby loses his right to inherit. A son denies that he is liable to this penalty unless his father is acquitted. How does he support this contention? There is another law to the effect that a man found guilty of treason shall be banished and his advocate with him.
1530	Cicero pro Cluentio Publium Popilium et Tiberium Guttam dicit non iudicii corrupti sed ambitus esse damnatos . Quid signi ? quod accusatores eorum , qui erant ipsi ambitus damnati , e lege sint post hanc victoriam restituti .	Cicero in the pro Cluentio says that Publius Popilius and Tiberius Gutta were not condemned for receiving bribes to give a false verdict, but for attempting to bribe the jury. What is his argument in support of this view? That their accusers, who were themselves found guilty of bribing the jury, were restored in accordance with law after winning their case.
1531	Nec minus in hoc curae debet adhiberi , quid proponendum quam quomodo sit quod proposuerimus probandum . Hic immo vis inventionis , si non maior , certe prior . Nam ut tela supervacua sunt nescienti , quid petat , sic argumenta , nisi provideris cui rei adhibenda sint . Hoc est , quod comprehendi arte non possit .	But the consideration as to what argument should be put forward requires no less care than the consideration of the manner in which we are to prove that which we have put forward. Indeed in this connexion invention, if not the most important, is certainly the first consideration. For, just as weapons are superfluous for one who does not know what his target is, so too arguments are useless, unless you see in advance to what they are to be applied. This is a task for which no formal rules can be laid down.
1532	Ideoque , cum plures eadem didicerint , generibus argumentorum similibus utentur ; alius alio plura , quibus utatur , inveniet . Sit exempli gratia proposita controversia , quae communes minime cum aliis quaestiones habet :	Consequently, though a number of orators, who have studied the same rules, will use similar kinds of arguments, one will discover a greater number of arguments to suit his case than another. Let us take as an example a controversial theme involving problems that have little in common with other cases.
1533	Cum Thebas evertisset Alexander , inuenit tabulas , quibus centum talenta mutua Thessalis dedisse ' Thebanos continebatur . Has , quia erat usus commilitio Thessalorum , donavit his ultro ; postea restituti a Cassandro Thebani reposcunt Thessalos . Apud Amphictyonas agitur . Centum talenta et credidisse eos constat et non recepisse .	" When Alexander destroyed Thebes, he found documents showing that the Thebans had lent a hundred talents to the Thessalians. These documents he presented to the Thessalians as a reward for the assistance they had given him in the campaign. Subsequently the Thebans, after the restoration of their city by Cassander, demanded that the Thessalians should repay the money. " The case is tried before the Amphictyonic council. It is admitted that the Thebans lent the money and were not repaid.
1534	Lis omnis ex eo , quod Alexander ea Thessalis donasse dicitur , pendet . Constat illud quoque , non esse iis ab Alexandro pecuniam data ; quaeritur ergo , an proinde sit , quod datum est , ac si pecuniam dederit ?	The whole dispute turns on the allegation that Alexander had excused the Thessalians from payment of the debt. It is also admitted that the Thessalians had received no money from Alexander. The question is therefore whether his gift is equivalent to his having given them money.
1535	Quid proderunt argumentorum loci , nisi haec prius videro , nihil eum egisse donando , non potuisse donare , non donasse ? Et prima quidem actio facilis ac favorabilis repetentium iure quod vi sit ablatum ; sed hinc aspera et uehemens quaestio exoritur de iure belli , dicentibus Thessalis , hoc regna , populos , fines gentium atque urbium contineri .	What use will formal topics of argument be in such a case, unless I first convince myself that the gift of Alexander made no difference, that he had not the power to make it, and that he did not make it? The opening of the Thebans' plea presents no difficulty and is likely to win the approval of the judges, since they are seeking to recover by right what was taken from them by force. But out of this point arises a violent controversy as to the right of war, since the Thessalians urge that kingdoms and peoples and the frontiers of nations and cities depend upon these rights.
1536	Inveniendum contra est , quo distet haec causa a ceteris , quae in potestatem victoris venirent ; nec circa probationem res haeret , sed circa propositionem . Dicamus inprimis : in eo , quod in iudicium deduci potest , nihil valere ius belli nec armis erepta nisi armis posse retineri ; itaque , ubi illa valeant , non esse iudicem ; ubi iudex sit , illa nihil valere .	To meet this argument it is necessary to discover in what respect this case differs from others which are concerned with property that has fallen into the hands of the victor: the difficulty moreover lies not so much in the proof as in the way it should be put forward. We may begin by stating that the rights of war do not hold good in any matter which can be brought before a court of justice, and that what is taken by force of arms can only be retained by force of arms, and consequently, wherever the rights of war hold good, there is no room for the functions of a judge, while on the contrary where the functions of the judge come into play, the rights of war cease to have any force.
1537	Hoc inveniendum est , ut adhiberi possit argumentum : ideo captivos , si in patriam suam redierint , liberos esse , quia bello parta non nisi eadem vi possideantur . Proprium est et illud causae , quod Amphictyones iudicant ( ut alia apud centumviros , alia apud privatum iudicem in iisdem quaestionibus ratio ) ;	The reason why it is necessary to discover this principle is to enable us to bring the following argument into play: that prisoners of war are free on returning to their native land just because the gains of war cannot be retained except by the exercise of the same violence by which they were acquired. Another peculiar feature of the case is that it is tried before the Amphictyonic council, and you will remember that we have to employ different methods in pleading a case before the centumviral court and before an arbitrator, though the problems of the cases may be identical.
1538	tum secundo gradu , non potuisse donari a victore ius , quia id demum sit eius , quod teneat ; ius , quod sit incorporate , adprehendi manu non posse . Hoc reperire est difficilius quam , cum inveneris , argumentis adiuvare , ut alia sit condicio heredis , alia victoris , quia ad illum ius , ad hunc res transeat .	Secondly we may urge that the right to refuse payment could not have been conferred by the victor because he possesses only what he holds, but a right, being incorporeal, cannot be grasped by the hand. It is more difficult to discover this principle than, once discovered, to defend it with arguments such as that the position of an heir and a conqueror are fundamentally different, since right passes to the one and property to the other.
1539	Proprium deinde materiae , ius publici crediti transire ad victorem non potuisse , quia , quod populus crediderit , omnibus debeatur , et , quamdiu quilibet unus superfuerit , esse eum totius summae creditorem , Thebanos autem non omnes in Alexandri manu fuisse .	It is further an argument peculiar to the subject matter of the case that the right over a public debt could not have passed to the victor, because the repayment of a sum of money lent by a whole people is due to them all, and as long as any single one of them survives, he is creditor for the whole amount: but the Thebans were never all of them to a man in Alexander's power.
1540	Hoc non extrinsecus probatur , quae vis est argumenti , sed ipsum per se valet . Tertii loci pars prior magis vulgaris , non in tabulis esse ius ; itaque multis argumentis defendi potest . Mens quoque Alexandri duci debet in dubium , honorarit eos an deceperit . Illud iam rursus proprium materiae et velut novae controversiae , quia restitutione recepisse ius , etiamsi quod amiserint , Thebani videntur . Hic et , quid Cassander velit , quaeritur : sed vel potentissima apud Amphictyonas aequi tractatio est .	The force of this argument resides in the fact that it is not based on any external support, but holds good in itself. Proceeding to the third line of argument we may note that the first portion of it is of a more ordinary type, namely that the right to repayment is not based on the actual document, a plea which can be supported by many arguments. Doubt may also be thrown on Alexander's purpose: did he intend to honour them or to trick them? Another argument peculiar to the subject (indeed it practically introduces a new discussion) is that the Thebans may be regarded as having in virtue of their restoration recovered the right even though it be admitted that they had lost it. Again Cassander's purpose may be discussed, but, as the case is being pleaded before the Amphictyonic council, we shall find that the most powerful plea that can be urged is that of equity.
1541	Haec non idcirco dico , quod inutilem horum locorum , ex quibus argumenta ducuntur , cognitionem putem , alioqui nec tradidissem ; sed ne se , qui cognoverint ista , si cetera negligant , perfectos protinus atque consummatos putent et , nisi in ceteris , quae mox praecipienda sunt , elaboraverint , mutam quandam scientiam consecutos intelligant .	I make these remarks, not because I think that a knowledge of the "places" from which arguments may be derived is useless (had I thought so, I should have passed them by)but to prevent those who have learnt these rules from neglecting other considerations and regarding themselves as having a perfect and absolute knowledge of the whole subject, and to make them realise that, unless they acquire a thorough knowledge of the remaining points which I am about to discuss, they will be the possessors of what I can only call a dumb science.
1542	Neque enim artibus editis factum est , ut argumenta inveniremus , sed dicta sunt omnia , antequam praeciperentur , mox ea scriptores observata et collecta ediderunt . Cuius rei probatio est , quod exemplis eorum veteribus utuntur et ab oratoribus ilia repetunt , ipsi nullum novum et quod dictum non sit inveniunt .	For the discovery of arguments was not the result of the publication of text-books, but every kind of argument was put forward before any rules were laid down, and it was only later that writers of rhetoric noted them and collected them for publication. A proof of this is the fact that the examples which they use are old and quoted from the orators, while they themselves discover nothing new or that has not been said before.
1543	Artifices ergo illi qui dixerunt ; sed habenda his quoque gratia est , per quos labor nobis est detractus . Nam , quae priores beneficio ingenii singula invenerunt , nobis et non sunt requirenda et notata sunt omnia . Sed non magis hoc sat est quam palaestram didicisse , nisi corpus exercitatione , continentia , cibis , ante omnia natura iuvatur , sicut contra ne illa quidem satis sine arte profuerint .	The creators of the art were therefore the orators, though we owe a debt of gratitude also to those who have given us a short cut to knowledge. For thanks to them the arguments discovered by the genius of earlier orators have not got to be hunted out and noted down in detail. But this does not suffice to make an orator any more than it suffices to learn the art of gymnastic in school: the body must be assisted by continual practice, self control, diet and above all by nature; on the other hand none of these are sufficient in themselves without the aid of art.
1544	Illud quoque studiosi eloquentiae cogitent , neque omnibus in causis , quae demonstravimus , cuncta posse reperiri ; neque , cum proposita fuerit materia dicendi , scrutanda singula et velut ostiatim pulsandum , ut sciant , an ad probandum id , quod intendimus , forte respondeant , nisi cum discunt et adhuc usu carent .	I would also have students of oratory consider that all the forms of argument which I have just set forth cannot be found in every case, and that when the subject on which we have to speak has been propounded, it is no use considering each separate type of argument and knocking at the door of each with a view to discovering whether they may chance to serve to prove our point, except while we are in the position of mere learners without any knowledge of actual practice.
1545	Infinitam enim faciat ista res dicendi tarditatem , si semper necesse sit , ut temptantes unumquodque eorum , quod sit aptum atque conveniens , experiendo noscamus ; nescio an etiam impedimento futura sint , nisi et animi quaedam ingenita natura et studio exercitata velocitas recta nos ad ea , quae conveniunt causae , ferant . Nam ,	Such a proceeding merely retards the process of speaking to an incalculable extent, if it is always necessary for us to try each single argument and thus learn by experiment what is apt and suitable to our case. In fact I am not sure that it will not be an actual obstacle to progress unless a certain innate penetration and a power of rapid divination seconded by study lead us straight to the arguments which suit our case.
1546	ut cantus vocis plurimum iuvat sociata nervorum concordia , si tamen tardior manus nisi inspectis demensisque singulis , quibus quaeque vox fidibus iungenda sit , dubitet , potius fuerit esse contentum eo , quod simplex canendi natura tulerit , ita huiusmodi praeceptis debet quidem aptata esse et citharae modo intenta ratio doctrinae ;	For just as the melody of the voice is most pleasing when accompanied by the lyre, yet if the musician's hand be slow and, unless he first look at the strings and take their measure, hesitate as to which strings match the several notes of the voice, it would be better that he should content himself with the natural music of the voice unaccompanied by any instrument; even so our theory of speaking must be adapted and, like the lyre, attuned to such rules as these.
1547	sed hoc exercitatione multa consequendum , ut , quemadmodum illorum artificum , etiamsi alio spectant , manus tamen ipsa consuetudine ad graves , acutos , medios nervorum sonos fertur , sic oratoris cognitionem nihil moretur haec varietas argumentorum et copia , sed quasi offerat se et occurrat , et , ut litterae syllabaeque scribentium cogitationem non exigunt , sic rationem sponte quadam sequantur .	But it is only by constant practice that we can secure that, just as the hands of the musician, even though his eyes be turned elsewhere, produce bass, treble or intermediate notes by force of habit, so the thought of the orator should suffer no delay owing to the variety and number of possible arguments, but that the latter should present themselves uncalled and, just as letters and syllables require no thought on the part of a writer, so arguments should spontaneously follow the thought of the orator.
1548	Tertium genus ex iis , quae extrinsecus adducuntur in causam , Graeci vacant παράδειγμα , quo nomine et generaliter usi sunt in omni similium adpositione et specialiter in iis , quae rerum gestarum auctoritate nituntur . Nostri fere similitudinem vocari maluerunt , quod ab illis παραβολὴ dicitur , alterum exemplum , quanquam et hoc simile est et illud exemplum .	The third kind of proof, which is drawn into the service of the case from without, is styled a παράδειγμα by the Greeks, who apply the term to all comparisons of like with like, but more especially to historical parallels. Roman writers have for the most part preferred to give the name of comparison to that which the Greeks style παραβολή, while they translate παράδειγμα by example, although this latter involves comparison, while the former is of the nature of an example.
1549	Nos , quo facilius propositum explicemus , utrumque παράδειγμα esse credamus , et ipsi appellemus exemplum . Nec vereor , ne videar repugnare Ciceroni , quanquam collationem separat ab exemplo . Nam idem omnem argumentationem dividit in duas partes , inductionem et ratiocinationem , ut plerique Graecorum in παραδείγματα et ἐπιχειρήματα dixeruntque παράδειγμα ῥητορικὴν ἐπαγωγήν .	For my own part, I prefer with a view to making my purpose easier of apprehension to regard both as παραδείγματα and to call them examples. Nor am I afraid of being thought to disagree with Cicero, although he does separate comparison from example. For he divides all arguments into two classes, induction and ratiocination, just as most Greeks divide it into παραδείγματα and ἐπιχειρήματα, explaining παράδειγμα as a rhetorical induction.
1550	Nam illa , qua plurimum est Socrates usus , hanc habuit viam , ut cum plura interrogasset , quae fateri adversario necesse esset , novissime id , de quo quaerebatur , inferret , ut simile concessis . Id est inductio . Hoc in oratione fieri non potest ; sed , quod illic interrogatur , hic fere sumitur .	The method of argument chiefly used by Socrates was of this nature: when he had asked a number of questions to which his adversary could only agree, he finally inferred the conclusion of the problem under discussion from its resemblance to the points already conceded. This method is known as induction, and though it cannot be used in a set speech, it is usual in a speech to assume that which takes the form of a question in dialogue.
1551	Sit igitur illa interrogatio talis : Quod est pomum generosissimum ? nonne quod optimum ? concedetur . Quid equus ? qui generosissimus ? Nonne qui optimus ? et plura in eundem modum . Deinde , cuius rei gratia rogatum est , Quid homo ? Nonne is generosissimus , qui optimus ? fatendum erit .	For instance take the following question: "What is the finest form of fruit? Is it not that which is best?" This will be admitted. "What of the horse? What is the finest? Is it not that which is the best?" Several more questions of the same kind follow. Last comes the question for the sake of which all the others were put: "What of man? Is not he the finest type who is best?" The answer can only be in the affirmative.
1552	Hoc in testium interrogatione valet plurimum , in oratione perpetua dissimile est ; aut enim sibi ipse respondet orator aut quod illic interrogatur , hic fere sumitur . Quod pomum generosissimum ? puto , quod optimum ; et equus ? qui velocissimus : ita hominum , non qui claritate nascendi sed qui uirtute maxime excellet . Omnia igitur ex hoc genere sumpta necesse est aut similia esse aut dissimilia aut contraria . Similitudo adsumitur interim et ad orationis ornatum ; sed illa , cum res exiget , nunc ea , quae ad probationem pertinent , exsequar .	Such a procedure is most valuable in the examination of witnesses, but is differently employed in a set speech. For there the orator either answers his own questions or makes an assumption of that which in dialogue takes the form of a question. " What is the finest fruit? The best, I should imagine. What is the finest horse? The swiftest. So too the finest type of man is not he that is noblest of birth, but he that is most excellent in virtue. " All arguments of this kind, therefore, must be from things like or unlike or contrary. Similes are, it is true, sometimes employed for the embellishment of the speech as well, but I will deal with them in their proper place; at present I am concerned with the use of similitude in proof.
1553	Potentissimum autem est inter ea quae sunt huius generis , quod proprie vocamus exemplum , id est rei gestae aut ut gestae utilis ad persuadendum id quod intenderis commemoratio . Intuendum igitur est , totum simile sit an ex parte , ut aut omnia ex eo sumamus aut quae utilia sunt . Simile est , iure occisus est Saturninus sicut Gracchi . Dissimile ,	The most important of proofs of this class is that which is most properly styled example, that is to say the adducing of some past action real or assumed which may serve to persuade the audience of the truth of the point which we are trying to make. We must therefore consider whether the parallel is complete or only partial, that we may know whether to use it in its entirety or merely to select those portions which are serviceable. We argue from the like when we say, "Saturninus was justly killed, as were the Gracchi" ; from the unlike when we say,
1554	Brutus occidit liberos proditionem molientes ; Manlius virtutem filii morte multavit . Contrarium , Marcellus ornamenta Syracusanis hostibus restituit ; Verres eadem sociis abstulit . Et probandorum et culpandorum ex iis confirmatio eosdem gradus habet .	" Brutus killed his sons for plotting against the state, while Manlius condemned his son to death for his valoulr " ; from the contrary when we say, " Marcellus restored the works of art which had been taken from the Syracusans who were our enemies, while Verres took the same works of art from our allies. " The same divisions apply also to such forms of proof in panegyric or denunciation.
1555	Etiam in iis , quae futura dicemus , utilis similium admonitio est , ut si quis dicens , Dionysium idcirco petere custodes salutis suae , ut eorum adiutus armis tyrannidem occupet , hoc referat exemplum , eadem ratione Pisistratum ad dominationem pervenisse .	It will also be found useful when we are speaking of what is likely to happen to refer to historical parallels: for instance if the orator asserts that Dionysius is asking for a bodyguard that with their armed assistance he may establish himself as tyrant, he may adduce the parallel case of Pisistratus who secured the supreme power by similar means.
1556	Sed ut sunt exempla interim tota similia ut hoc proximum , sic interim ex maioribus ad minora , ex minoribus ad maiora ducuntur . Urbes violata propter matrimonia eversae sunt ; quid fieri adultero par est ? Tibicines , cum ab urbe discessissent , publice revocati sunt ; quanto magis principes civitatis viri et bene de republica meriti , cum invidiae cesserint , ab exilio reducendi ?	But while examples may at times, as in the last instance, apply in their entirety, at times we shall argue from the greater to the less or from the less to the greater. " Cities have been overthrown by the violation of the marriage bond. What punishment then will meet the case of adultery? " Fluteplayers have been recalled by the state to the city which they had left. How much more then is it just that leading citizens who have rendered good service to their country should be recalled from that exile to which they have been driven by envy. "
1557	Ad exhortationem vero praecipue valent imparia . Admirabilior in femina quam in viro virtus . Quare , si ad fortiter faciendum accendatur aliquis , non tantum adferent momenti Horatius et Torquatus quantum illa mulier cuius manu Pyrrhus est interfectus , et ad moriendum non tam Cato et Scipio quam Lucretia ; quod ipsum est ex maioribus ad minora .	Arguments from unlikes are most useful in exhortation. Courage is more remarkable in a woman than in a man. Therefore, if we wish to kindle someone's ambition to the performance of heroic deeds, we shall find that parallels drawn from the cases of Horatius and Torquatus will carry less weight than that of the woman by whose hand Pyrrhus was slain, and if we wish to urge a man to meet death, the cases of Cato and Scipio will carry less weight than that of Lucretia. These are however arguments from the greater to the less.
1558	Singula igitur horum generum ex Cicerone ( nam unde potius ? ) exempla ponamus . Simile est hoc pro Murena , Etenim mihi ipsi accidit , it cum duobus patriciis , altero improbissimo et audacissimo altero modestissimo atque optimo viro , peterem ; superavi tamen dignitate Catilinam , gratia Galbam .	Let me then give you separate examples of these classes of argument from the pages of Cicero; for where should I find better? The following passage from the pro Murena is an instance of argument from the like: " For it happened that I myself when a candidate had two patricians as competitors, the one a man of the most unscrupulous and reckless character, the other a most excellent and respectable citizen. Yet I defeated Catiline by force of merit and Galba by my popularity. "