Institutio Oratoria (Quintilian)

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	Institutio Oratoria Author: Quintilian	Translator: Harold Edgeworth Butler
191	Nam vitium , quod fit per quantitatem ut magnum peculiolum , erunt qui soloecismum putent quia pro nomine integro positum sit deminutum . Ego dubito , an id improprium potius appellem , significatione enim deerrat ; soloecismi porro uitium non est in sensu sed in complexu .	As for solecisms connected with expressions of quantity, there are some who will regard phrases such as magnum peculiolum as a solecism, because the diminutive is used instead of the ordinary noun, which implies no diminution. I think I should call it a misuse of the diminutive rather than a solecism; for it is an error of sense, whereas solecisms are not errors of sense, but rather faulty combinations of words.
192	In participio per genus et casum , ut in vocabulo , per tempora , ut in verbo , per numerum , ut in utroque , peccatur . Pronomen quoque genus , numerum , casus habet , quae omnia recipiunt huiusmodi errorem .	As regards participles, solecisms occur in case and gender as with nouns, in tense as with verbs, and in number as in both. The pronoun admits of solecisms in gender, number and case.
193	Fiunt soloecismi et quidem plurimi per partes orationis ; sed id tradere satis non est , ne ita demum vitium esse credat puer , si pro alia ponatur alia , ut verbum , ubi nomen esse debuerit , vel adverbium , ubi pronomen , et similia .	Solecisms also occur with great frequency in connexion with parts of speech: but a bare statement on this point is not sufficient, as it may lead a boy to think that such error consists only in the substitution of one part of speech for another, as for instance if a verb is placed where we require a noun, or an adverb takes the place of a pronoun and so on.
194	Nam sunt quaedam cognata , ut dicunt , id est eiusdem generis , in quibus , qui alia specie quam oportet utetur , non minus quam ipso genere permutato deliquerit .	For there are some nouns which are cognate, that is to say of the same genus, and he who uses the wrong species in connexion with one of these will be guilty of the same offence as if he were to change the genus. Thus an and aut are conjunctions, but it would be bad Latin to say in a question hic and ille sit ;
195	Nam et an et aut coniunctiones sunt , male tamen interroges , hic aut ille sit ; et ne ac non adverbia ; qui tamen dicat pro illo " ne feceris " non feceris , " in idem incidat vitium , quia alterum negandi est alterum vetandi . Hoc amplius intro et intus loci adverbia , eo tamen intus et intro sum soloecismi sunt .	ne and non are adverbs: but he who says non feceris in lieu of ne feceris, is guilty of a similar mistake, since one negative denies, while the other forbids. Further intro and intus are adverbs of place, but eo intus and intro sum are solecisms.
196	Eadem in diversitate pronominum , interiectionum , praepositionum accident ; est etiam soloecismus in oratione comprehensionis unius sequentium ac priorum inter se inconveniens position .	Similar errors may be committed in connexion with the various kinds of pronouns, interjections and prepositions. It is also a solecism if there is a disagreement between what precedes and what follows within the limits of a single clause.
197	Quaedam tamen et faciem soloecismi habent et dici vitiosa non possunt , ut tragoedia Thyestes et ludi Floralia ac Megalensia , quanquam haec sequenti tempore interciderunt numquam aliter a veteribus dicta . Schemata igitur nominabuntur , frequentiora quidem apud poetas sed oratoribus quoque permissa .	Some phrases have all the appearance of a solecism and yet cannot be called faulty; take for instance phrases such as tragoedia Thyestes or ludi Floralia and Megalensia : although these are never found in later times, they are the rule in ancient writers. We will therefore style them figures and, though their use is more frequent in poets, will not deny their employment even to orators.
198	Verum schema fere habebit aliquam rationem , ut docebimus eo , quem paulo ante promisimus , loco . Sed id quoque , quod schema vocatur , si ab aliquo per imprudentiam factum erit , soloecismi vitio non carebit .	Figures however will generally have some justification, as I shall show in a later portion of this work, which I promised you a little while back. I must however point out that a figure, if used unwittingly, will be a solecism.
199	In eadem specie sunt sed schemate carent , ut supra dixi , nomina feminina , quibus mares utuntur , et neutralia , quibus feminae . Hactenus de soloecismo . Neque enim artem grammaticam componere aggressi sumus , sed cum in ordinem incurreret , inhonoratam transire noluimus .	In the same class, though they cannot be called figures, come errors such as the use of masculine names with a female termination and feminine names with a neuter termination. I have said enough about solecisms; for I did not set out to write a treatise on grammar, but was unwilling to slight the science by passing it by without salutation, when it met me in the course of my journey.
200	Hoc amplius , ut institutum ordinem sequar , verba aut Latina aut peregrina sunt . Peregrina porro ex omnibus prope dixerim gentibus ut homines , ut instituta etiam multa venerunt .	I therefore resume the path which I prescribed for myself and point out that words are either native or foreign. Foreign words, like our population and our institutions, have come to us from practically every nation upon earth.
201	Taceo de Tuscis et Sabinis et Praenestinis quoque ; nam ut eorum sermone utentem Vettium Lucilius insectatur , quemadmodum Pollio reprehendit in Livio Patavinitatem , licet omnia Italica pro Romanis habeam .	I pass by words of Tuscan, Sabine and Praenestine origin; for though Lucilius attacks Vettius for using them, and Pollio reproves Livy for his lapses into the dialect of Padua, I may be allowed to regard all such words as of native origin. Many Gallic words have become current coin,
202	PlurimaGallica evaluerunt ut raeda ac petorritum , quorum altero tamen Cicero altero Horatius utitur . Et mappam circo quoque usitatum nomen Poeni sibi vindicant , et gurdos , quos pro stolidis accipit vulgus , ex Hispania duxisse originem audivi .	such as raeda (chariot) and petorritim (four-wheeled wagon) of which Cicero uses the former and Horace the latter. Mappa (napkin) again, a word familiar in connexion with the circus, is claimed by the Carthaginians, while I have heard that gurdus, which is colloquially used in the sense of "stupid," is derived from Spain.
203	Sed haec divisio mea ad Graecum sermonem praecipue pertinet , nam et maxima ex parte Romanus inde conversus est et confessis quoque Graecis utimur verbis , ubi nostra desunt , sicut illi a nobis nonnunquam mutuantur . Inde illa quaestio exoritur , an eadem ratione per casus duci externa qua nostra conveniat .	But this distinction between native and foreign words has reference chiefly to Greek. For Latin is largely derived from that language, and we use words which are admittedly Greek to express things for which we have no Latin equivalent. Similiarly they at tines borrow words from us. In this connexion the problem arises whether foreign words should be declined according to their language or our own.
204	Ac si reperias grammaticum veterum amatorem , neget quidquam ex Latina ratione mutandum , quia , cum sit apud nos casus ablativus , quem illi non habent , parum conveniat uno casu nostro quinque Graecis uti ;	If you come across an archaistic grammarian, he will insist on absolute conformity to Latin practice, because, since we have an ablative and the Greeks have not, it would be absurd in declining a word to use five Greek cases and one Latin.
205	quin etiam laudet virtutem eorum , qui potentiorem facere linguam Latinam studebant , nec alienis egere institutis fatebantur . Inde Castorem media syllaba producta pronuntiarunt , quia hoc omnibus nostris nominibus accidebat , quorum prima positio in easdem quas Castor litteras exit ; et ut Palaemo ac Telamo et Plato ( nam sic eum Cicero quoque appellat ) dicerentur , retinuerunt , quia Latinum , quod o et n litteris finiretur , non reperiebant .	He will also praise the patriotism of those who aimed at strengthening the Latin language and asserted that we had no need of foreign practices. They, therefore, pronounced Castorem with the second syllable long to bring it into conformity with all those Latin nouns which have the same termination in the nominative as Castor. They also insisted on the forms Palaemo, Telamo, and Plato (the last being adopted by Cicero), because they could not find any Latin nouns ending in -on.
206	Ne in a quidem atque s litteras exire temere masculina Graeca nomina recto casu patiebantur , ideoque et apud Caelium legimus Pelia cincinnatus et apud Messalam bene fecit Euthia et apud Ciceronem Hermagora , ne miremur , quod ab antiquorum plerisque Aenea ut Anchisa sit dictus .	They were reluctant even to permit masculine Greek nouns to end in -as in the nominative case, and consequently in Caelius we find Pelia cincinnatus and in Messala bene fecit Euthia, and in Cicero Hermagora. So we need not be surprised that the majority of early writers said Aenea and Anchisa.
207	Nam si ut Maecenas , Sufenas , Asprenas dicerentur , genitivo casu non e littera , sed tis syllaba terminarentur . Inde Olympo et tyranno acutam syllabam mediam dederunt , quia duabus longis insequentibus primam brevem acui noster sermo non patitur .	For, it was urged, if such words are spelt like Maecenas, Sufenas and Asprenas, the genitive should terminate in -is not in -e. On the same principle they placed an acute accent on the middle syllable of Olympus and tyrannus, because Latin does not allow an acute accent on the first syllable if it is short and is followed by two long syllables.
208	Sic genitivus Ulixi et Achilli fecit , sic alia plurima . Nunc recentiores instituerunt Graecis nominibus Graecas declinationes potius dare , quod tamen ipsum non semper fieri potest . Mihi autem placet Latinam rationem sequi , quousque patitur decor . Neque enim iam Calypsonem dixerim ut Iunonem , quanquam secutus antiquos , C . Caesar utitur hac ratione declinandi . Sed auctoritatem consuetudo superavit .	So too we get the Latinised genitives Ulixi and Achilli together with many other analogous forms. More recent scholars have instituted the practice of giving Greek nouns their Greek declension, although this is not always possible. Personally I prefer to follow the Latin method, so far as grace of diction will permit. For I should not like to say Calypsonem on the analogy of Iunonem, although Gaius Caesar in deference to antiquity does adopt this way of declining it. Current practice has however prevailed over his authority.
209	In ceteris , quae poterunt utroque modo non indecenter efferri , qui Graecam figuram sequi malet , non Latine quidem sed tamen citra reprehensionem loquetur .	In other words which can be declined in either way without impropriety, those who prefer it can employ the Greek form: they will not be speaking Latin, but will not on the other hand deserve censure. Simple words are what they are in the nominative, that is, their essential nature.
210	Simplices voces prima positione id est natura sua constant , compositae aut praepositionibus subiunguntur ut innocens ( dum ne pugnantibus inter se duabus , quale est inperterritus ; alioqui possunt aliquando continuari duae ut incompositus , reconditus et quo Cicero utitur subabsurdum ) , aut e duobus quasi corporibus coalescunt , ut maleficus .	Compound words are formed by the prefix of a preposition as in innocens, though care must be taken that two conflicting prepositions are not prefixed as in imperterritus: if this be avoided they may in certain cases have a double prefix as in incompositus or reconditus or the Ciceronian subabsurdtim. They may also be formed by what I might term the combination of two independent units, as in maleficus.
211	Nam ex tribus nostrae utique linguae non concesserim ; quamvis capsis Cicero dicat compositum esse ex cape si vis , et inveniantur qui Lupercalia aeque tres partes orationis esse contendant ,	For I will not admit that the combination of three is possible at any rate in Latin, although Cicero asserts that capsis is compounded of cape si vis, and there are to be found scholars who contend that Lupercalia likewise is a compound of three parts of speech, namely luere per caprum.
212	quasi luere per caprum ; nam Solitaurilia iam persuasum est esse Suouetaurilia , et sane ita se habet sacrum , quale apud Homerum quoque est . Sed haec non tam ex tribus quam ex particulis trium coeunt . Ceterum etiam ex praepositione et duobus vocabulis dure videtur struxisse Pacuvius Nerei repandirostrum , incuruiceruicum pecus .	As for Solitaurilia it is by now universally believed to stand for Suovelaurilia, a derivation which corresponds to the actual sacrifice, which has its counterpart in Homer as well. But these compounds are formed not so much from three words as from the fragments of three. On the other hand Pacuvius seems to have formed compounds of a preposition and two vocables ( i.e. nouns) as in "Nerei repandirostrum incurvticervicum pecs: "The flock Of Nereus snout-uplifted, neck-inarched" the effect is unpleasing.
213	Iunguntur autem aut ex duobus Latinis integris ut superfui , subterfugi ( quanquam ex integris an composita sint quaeritur ) , aut ex integro et corrupto ut malevolus , aut ex corrupto et integro ut noctivagus , aut ex duobus corruptis ut pedisecus , aut ex nostro et peregrino ut biclinium , aut contra ut epitogium et Anticato , aliquando et ex duobus peregrinis ut epiraedium . Nam cum sit praepositio Graeca , raeda Gallicum : neque Graecus tamen neque Gallus utitur composito ; Romani suum ex alieno utroque fecerunt .	Compounds are however formed from two complete Latin words, as for instance supefui and subterfui; though in this case there is some question as to whether the words from which they are formed are complete. They may also be formed of one complete and one incomplete word, as in the case of malevolus, or of one incomplete and one complete, such as noctivagus, or of two incomplete words as in pedisecus (footman), or from one Latin and one foreign word as in biclinium (a dining-couch for two), or in the reverse order as in epitogium (an upper garment) or Anticato, and sometimes even from two foreign words as in epiraedium (a thong attaching the horse to the raeda). For in this last case the preposition is Greek, while raeda is Gallic, while the compound is employed neither by Greek nor Gaul, but has been appropriated by Rome from the two foreign tongues.
214	Frequenter autem praepositiones quoque compositio ista corrumpit : inde abstulit , aufugit , amisit , cum praepositio sit ab sola ; et coit , cum sit praepositio con ; sic ignaui et erepublica et similia .	In the case of prepositions they are frequently changed by the act of compounding: as a result we get abstulit, aufugit, amisit, though the preposition is ab, and coil, though the preposition is con. The same is true of ignauus and erepublica. But compounds are better suited to Greek than to Latin,
215	Sed res tota magis Graecos decet , nobis minus succedit , nec id fieri natura puto , sed alienis favemus ; ideoque cum κυρταύχενα mirati simus , incurvicervicum vix a risu defendimus .	though I do not think that this is due to the nature of our language: the reason rather is that we have a preference for foreign goods, and therefore receive κυρταύχην with applause, whereas we can scarce defend incurvicervicus from derisive laughter. Words are proper when they bear their original meaning;
216	Propria sunt verba , cum id significant , in quod primo denominata sunt ; translata , cum alium natura intellectum alium loco praebent . Usitatis tutius utimur , nova non sine quodam periculo fingimus . Nam si recepta sunt , modicam laudem adferunt orationi , repudiata etiam in iocos exeunt .	metaphorical, when they are used in a sense different from their natural meaning. Current words are safest to use: there is a spice of danger in coining new. For if they are adopted, our style wins but small glory from them; while if they are rejected, they become a subject for jest.
217	Audendum tamen ; namque , ut Cicero ait , etiam quae primo dura visa sunt , usu molliuntur . Sed minime nobis concessa est ὀνοματοποιία quis enim ferat , si quid simile illis merito laudatis λίγξε βιός et σίζ ὀφθαλμός fingere audeamus ? Nam ne balare quidem aut hinnire fortiter diceremus , nisi iudicio vetustatis niterentur .	Still we must make the venture; for as Cicero says, use softens even these words which at first seemed harsh. On the other hand the power of onomatopoeia is denied us. Who would tolerate an attempt to imitate phrases like the much praised λίγξε βιός, "the bow twanged," and σῖζεν ὀφθαλμός "the eye hissed" ? We should even feel some qualms about using balare "to baa," and hinntre, "to whinny," if we had not the sanction of antiquity to support us.
218	Est etiam sua loquentibus observatio , sua scribentibus . Sermo constat ratione vel vetustate , auctoritate , consuetudine . Rationem praestat praecipue analogia , nonnunquam et etymologia . Vetera maiestas quaedam et , ut sic dixerim , religio commendat .	There are special rules which must be observed both by speakers and writers. Language is based on reason, antiquity, authority and usage. Reason finds its chief support in analogy and sometimes in etymology. As for antiquity, it is commended to us by the possession of a certain majesty, I might almost say sanctity.
219	Auctoritas ab oratoribus vel historicis peti solet ; nam poetas metri necessitas excusat , nisi si quando nihil impediente in utroque modulatione pedum alterum malunt , qualia sunt , imo de stirpe recisum , et aëriae quo congessere palumbes et silice in nuda et similia ; cum summorum in eloquentia virorum iudicium pro ratione , et velut error honestus est magnos duces sequentibus .	Authority as a rule we derive from orators and historians. For poets, owing to the necessities of metre, are allowed a certain licence except in cases where they deliberately choose one of two expressions, when both are metrically possible, as for instance in imo de stirpe recisum and aeriae quo congessere palumbes or silice in nuda and the like. The judgment of a supreme orator is placed on the same level as reason, and even error brings no disgrace, if it result from treading in the footsteps of such distinguished guides.
220	Consuetudo vero certissima loquendi magistra , utendumque plane sermone ut nummo , cui publica forma est . Omnia tamen haec exigunt acre iudicium , analogia praecipue , quam proxime ex Graeco transferentes in Latinum proportionem vocaverunt .	Usage however is the surest pilot in speaking, and we should treat language as currency minted with the public stamp. But in all these cases we have need of a critical judgment, especially as regards analogy (a Greek term for which a Latin equivalent has been found in proportion).
221	Eius haec vis est , ut id quod dubium est ad aliquid simile , de quo non quaeritur , referat et incerta certis probet . Quod efficitur duplici via : comparatione similium in extremis maxime syllabis , propter quod ea quae sunt e singulis negantur debere rationem , et deminutione .	The essence of analogy is the testing of all subjects of doubt by the application of some standard of comparison about which there is no question, the proof that is to say of the uncertain by reference to the certain. This can be done in two different ways: by comparing similar words, paying special attention to their final syllables (hence monosyllables are asserted to lie outside the domain of analogy ) and by the study of diminutives.
222	Comparatio in nominibus aut genus deprehendit aut declinationem ; genus , ut si quaeratur , funis masculinum sit an femininum , simile illi sit panis ; declinationem , ut si veniat in dubium , hac domu dicendum sit an hac domo et domuum an domorum :	Comparison of nouns will reveal either their gender or their declension: in the first case, supposing the question is raised as to whether junis be masculine or feminine, panis will supply a standard of comparison: in the second case, supposing we are in doubt as to whether we should say hac domu or hac domo, domuum or domorum, the standard of comparison will be found in words such as anus or manus.
223	similia sint anus , manus . Deminutio genus modo detegit , et , ne ab eodem exemplo recedam , funem masculinum esse funiculus ostendit .	Diminutives merely reveal the gender: for instance, to return to a word previously used as an illustration, funiculus proves that funis is masculine.
224	Eadem in verbis quoque ratio comparationis , ut , si quis antiques secutus fervere brevi media syllaba dicat , deprehendatur vitiose loqui , quod omnia , quae e et o litteris fatendi modo terminantur , eadem , si infinitis e litteram media syllaba acceperunt , utique productam habent : prandeo pendeo spondeo , prandere pendere spondere .	The same standard may be applied in the case of verbs. For instance if it should be asserted that the middle syllable of fervere is short, we can prove this to be an error, because all verbs which in the indicative terminate in -eo, make the middle syllable of the infinitive long, if that syllable contain an e: take as examples such verbs as prandeo, pendeo, spondeo with infinitives prandēre, pendēre, spondēre.
225	At quae o solam habent , dummodo per eandem litteram in infinito exeant , brevia fiunt : lego dico curro , legere dicere currere ; etiamsi est apud Lucilium Fervit aqua et fervet , fervit nunc , fervet ad annum .	Those verbs, however, which terminate in -o alone, if they form the infinitive in e, have the e short; compare lego, dico, curro, with the infinitives, legĕre, dicĕre, currĕre. I admit that in Lucilius we find— " fervit aqua et fervet: firvit nunc ferverit ad annum. "The water boils and boil it will; it boils and for a year will boil." But with all due respect to so learned a man, if he regards fervit as on the same footing as currit and legit, we shall say fervo as we say lego and curro: but such a form has never yet come to my ears.
226	Sed pace dicere hominis eruditissimi liceat , si fervit putat illi simile currit et legit , fervo dicetur ut lego et curro , quod nobis inauditum est . Sed non est haec vera comparatio ; nam fervit est illi simile servit , quam proportionem sequenti dicere necesse est fervire ut servire .	But this is not a true comparison: for fervit resembles servit, and on this analogy we should say fervire like servire.
227	Prima quoque aliquando positio ex obliquis invenitur , ut memoria repeto convictos a me , qui reprehenderant , quod hoc verbo usus essem , pepigi ; nam id quidem dixisse summos auctores confitebantur , rationem tamen negabant permittere , quia prima positio paciscor , cum haberet naturam patiendi , faceret tempore praeterito pactus sum .	It is also possible in certain cases to discover the present indicative of a verb from the study of its other tenses. I remember, for instance, refuting certain scholars who criticised me for using the word pepigi: for, although they admitted that it had been used by some of the best authors, they asserted that it was an irrational form because the present indicative paciscor, being passive in form, made pactus sum as its perfect.
228	Nos praeter auctoritatem oratorum atque historicorum analogia quoque dictum hoc tuebamur . Nam cum legeremus in XII tabulis ni ita pagunt , inveniebamus simile huic cadunt , inde prima positio , etiamsi vetustate exoleverat , apparebat paco ut cado , unde non erat dubium sic pepigi nos dicere ut cecidi .	I in addition to quoting the authority of orators and historians maintained that I was also supported by analogy. For when I found ni ita pacunt in the Twelve Tables, I noted that cadunt provided a parallel: it was clear therefore that the present indicative, though now obsolete, was paco on the analogy of cado, and it was further obvious that we say pepigi for just the same reason that we say cecidi.