Institutio Oratoria |
Translator: Harold Edgeworth Butler
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| 1 |
M . Fabius Quintilianus Tryphoni suo salutem Efflagitasti cotidiano convicio , ut libros , quos ad Marcellum meum de Institutione oratoria scripseram iam emittere inciperem . Nam ipse eos nondum opinabar satis maturuisse , quibus componendis , ut scis , paulo plus quam biennium tot alioqui negotiis districtus impendi ; quod tempus non tam stilo quam inquisitioni instituti operis prope infiniti et legendis auctoribus , qui sunt innumerabiles , datum est .
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Preface Marcus Fabius Quintilianus to his friend Trypho, greeting You have daily importuned me with the request that I should at length take steps to publish the book on the Education of an Orator which I dedicated to my friend Marcellus. For my own view was that it was not yet ripe for publication. As you know I have spent little more than two years on its composition, during which time moreover I have been distracted by a multitude of other affairs. These two years have been devoted not so much to actual writing as to the research demanded by a task to which practically no limits can be set and to the reading of innumerable authors. |
| 2 |
Usus deinde Horatii consilio , qui in arte poetica suadet , ne praecipitetur editio nonumque prematur in annum , dabam iis otium , ut , refrigerato inventionis amore , diligentius repetitos tanquam lector perpenderem .
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Further, following the precept of Horace who in his Art of Poetry deprecates hasty publication and urges the would-be author "To withhold His work till nine long years have passed away," I proposed to give them time, in order that the ardour of creation might cool and that I might revise them with all the consideration of a dispassionate reader. |
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Sed si tanto opere efflagitantur quam tu adfirmas , permittamus vela ventis et oram solventibus bene precemur . Multum autem in tua quoque fide ac diligentia positum est , ut in manus hominum quam emendatissimi veniant .
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But if there is such a demand for their publication as you assert, why then let us spread our canvas to the gale and offer up a fervent prayer to heaven as we put out to sea. But remember I rely on your loyal care to see that they reach the public in as correct a form as possible. |
| 4 |
Liber I post impetratam studiis meis quietem , quae per viginti annos erudiendis iuvenibus impenderam , cum a me quidam familiariter postularent , ut aliquid de ratione dicendi componerem , diu sum equidem reluctatus , quod auctores utriusque linguae clarissimos non ignorabam multa , quae ad hoc opus pertinerent , diligentissime scripta posteris reliquisse .
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Book I Having at length, after twenty years devoted to the training of the young, obtained leisure for study, I was asked by certain of my friends to write something on the art of speaking. For a long time I resisted their entreaties, since I was well aware that some of the most distinguished Greek and Roman writers had bequeathed to posterity a number of works dealing with this subject, to the composition of which they had devoted the utmost care. |
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Sed qua ego ex causa faciliorem mihi veniam meae deprecationis arbitrabar fore , hac accendebantur illi magis , quod inter diversas opiniones priorum et quasdam etiam inter se contrarias difficilis esset electio ; ut mihi si non inveniendi nova at certe iudicandi de veteribus iniungere laborem non iniuste viderentur .
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This seemed to me to be an admirable excuse for my refusal, but served merely to increase their enthusiasm. They urged that previous writers on the subject had expressed different and at times contradictory opinions, between which it was very difficult to choose. They thought therefore that they were justified in imposing on me the task, if not of discovering original views, at least of passing definite judgment on those expressed by my predecessors. |
| 6 |
Quamvis autem non tam me vinceret praestandi , quod exigebatur , fiducia quam negandi verecundia , latius se tamen aperiente materia plus quam imponebatur oneris sponte suscepi , simul ut pleniore obsequio demererer amantissimos mei , simul ne vulgarem viam ingressus alienis demum vestigiis insisterem .
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I was moved to comply not so much because I felt confidence that I was equal to the task, as because I had a certain compunction about refusing. The subject proved more extensive than I had first imagined; but finally I volunteered to shoulder a task which was on a far larger scale than that which I was originally asked to undertake. I wished on the one hand to oblige my very good friends beyond their requests, and on the other to avoid the beaten track and the necessity of treading where others had gone before. |
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Nam ceteri fere , qui artem orandi litteris tradiderunt , ita sunt exorsi , quasi perfectis omni alio genere doctrinae summam in eloquentia manum imponerent , sive contemnentes tanquam parva , quae prius discimus , studia , sive non ad suum pertinere officium opinati , quando divisae professionum vices essent , seu , quod proximum vero , nullam ingenii sperantes gratiam circa res etiamsi necessarias procul tamen ab ostentatione positas ; ut operum fastigia spectantur , latent fundamenta .
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For almost all others who have written on the art of oratory have started with the assumption that their readers were perfect in all other branches of education and that their own task was merely to put the finishing touches to their rhetorical training; this is due to the fact that they either despised the preliminary stages of education or thought that they were not their concern, since the duties of the different branches of education are distinct one from another, or else, and this is nearer the truth, because they had no hope of making a remunerative display of their talent in dealing with subjects, which, although necessary, are far from being showy: just as in architecture it is the superstructure and not the foundations which attracts the eye. |
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Ego , cum existimem nihil arti oratoriae alienum , sine quo fieri non posse oratorem fatendum est , nec ad ullius rei summam nisi praecedentibus initiis perveniri , ad minora illa , sed quae si negligas , non sit maioribus locus , demittere me non recusabo ; nec aliter , quam si mihi tradatur educandus orator , studia eius formare ab infantia incipiam . Quod opus , Marcelle Victori , tibi dicamus ;
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I on the other hand hold that the art of oratory includes all that is essential for the training of an orator, and that it is impossible to reach the summit in any subject unless we have first passed through all the elementary stages. I shall not therefore refuse to stoop to the consideration of those minor details, neglect of which may result in there being no opportunity for more important things, and propose to mould the studies of my orator from infancy, on the assumption that his whole education has been entrusted to my charge. |
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quem , cum amicissimum nobis tum eximio litterarum amore flagrantem , non propter haec modo ( quamquam sint magna ) dignissimum hoc mutuae inter nos caritatis pignore iudicabamus ; sed quod erudiendo Getae tuo , cuius prima aetas manifestum iam ingenii lumen ostendit , non inutiles fore libri videbantur , quos ab ipsis dicendi velut incunabulis , per omnes , quae modo aliquid oratori futuro conferant , artis ad summam eius operis perducere destinabamus ;
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This work I dedicate to you, Marcellus Victorius. You have been the truest of friends to me and you have shown a passionate enthusiasm for literature. But good as these reasons are, they are not the only reasons that lead me to regard you as especially worthy of such a pledge of our mutual affection. There is also the consideration that this book should prove of service in the education of your son Geta, who, young though he is, already shows clear promise of real talent. It has been my design to lead my reader from the very cradle of speech through all the stages of education which can be of any service to our budding orator till we have reached the very summit of the art. |
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atque eo magis , quod duo iam sub nomine meo libri ferebantur artis rhetoricae neque editi a me neque in hoc comparati . Namque alterum sermonem per biduum habitum pueri , quibus id praestabatur , exceperant ; alterum pluribus sane diebus , quantum notando consequi potuerant , interceptum boni iuvenes , sed nimium amantes mei , temerario editionis honore vulgaverant .
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I have been all the more desirous of so doing because two books on the art of rhetoric are at present circulating under my name, although never published by me or composed for such a purpose. One is a two days' lecture which was taken down by the boys who were my audience. The other consists of such notes as my good pupils succeeded in taking down from a course of lectures on a somewhat more extensive scale: I appreciate their kindness, but they showed an excess of enthusiasm and a certain lack of discretion in doing my utterances the honour of publication. |
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Quare in his quoque libris erunt eadem aliqua , multa mutata , plurima adiecta , omnia vero compositiora et , quantum nos poterimus , elaborata .
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Consequently in the present work although some passages remain the same, you will find many alterations and still more additions, while the whole theme will be treated with greater system and with as great perfection as lies within my power. |
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Oratorem autem instituimus illum perfectum , qui esse nisi vir bonus non potest ; ideoque non dicendi modo eximiam in eo facultatem sed omnes animi virtutes exigimus .
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My aim, then, is the education of the perfect orator. The first essential for such an one is that he should be a good man, and consequently we demand of him not merely the possession of exceptional gifts of speech, but of all the excellences of character as well. |
| 13 |
Neque enim hoc concesserim , rationem rectae honestaeque vitae ( ut quidam putaverunt ) ad philosophos relegandam , cum vir ille vere civilis et publicarum privatarumque rerum administrationi accommodatus , qui regere consiliis urbes , fundare legibus , emendare iudiciis possit , non alius sit profecto quam orator .
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For I will not admit that the principles of upright and honourable living should, as some have held, be regarded as the peculiar concern of philosophy. The man who can really play his part as a citizen and is capable of meeting the demands both of public and private business, the man who can guide a state by his counsels, give it a firm basis by his legislation and purge its vices by his decisions as a judge, is assuredly no other than the orator of our quest. |
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Quare , tametsi me fateor usurum quibusdam , quae philosophorum libris continentur , tamen ea iure vereque contenderim esse operis nostri proprieque ad artem oratoriam pertinere .
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Wherefore, although I admit I shall make use of certain of the principles laid down in philosophical textbooks, I would insist that such principles have a just claim to form part of the subject-matter of this work and do actually belong to the art of oratory. |
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An , si frequentissime de iustitia , fortitudine , temperantia ceterisque similibus disserendum est , adeo ut vix ulla possit causa reperiri in quam non aliqua ex his incidat quaestio , eaque omnia inventione atque elocutione sunt explicanda , dubitabitur , ubicunque vis ingenii et copia dicendi postulatur , ibi partes oratoris esse praecipuas ?
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I shall frequently be compelled to speak of such virtues as courage, justice, self-control; in fact scarcely a case comes up in which some one of these virtues is not involved; every one of them requires illustration and consequently makes a demand on the imagination and eloquence of the pleader. I ask you then, can there be any doubt that, wherever imaginative power and amplitude of diction are required, the orator has a specially important part to play? |
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Fueruntque haec , ut Cicero apertissime colligit , quemadmodum iuncta natura sic officio quoque copulata , ut iidem sapientes atque eloquentes haberentur . Scidit deinde se studium , atque inertia factum est , ut artes esse plures viderentur . Nam ut primum lingua esse coepit in quaestu institutumque eloquentiae bonis male uti , curam morum , qui diserti habebantur , reliquerunt .
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These two branches of knowledge were, as Cicero has clearly shown, so closely united, not merely in theory but in practice, that the same men were regarded as uniting the qualifications of orator and philosopher. Subsequently this single branch of study split up into its component parts, and thanks to the indolence of its professors was regarded as consisting of several distinct subjects. As soon as speaking became a means of livelihood and the practice of making an evil use of the blessings of eloquence came into vogue, those who had a reputation for eloquence ceased to study moral philosophy, and ethics, |
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Ea vero destituta infirmioribus ingeniis velut praedae fuit . Inde quidam , contempto bene dicendi labore , ad formandos animos statuendasque vitae leges regressi partem quidem potiorem , si dividi posset , retinuerunt ; nomen tamen sibi insolentissimum arrogaverunt , ut soli studiosi sapientiae vocarentur , quod neque summi imperatores neque in consiliis rerum maximarum ac totius administratione rei publicae clarissime versati sibi unquam vindicare sunt ausi . Facere enim optima quam promittere maluerunt .
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thus abandoned by the orators, became the prey of weaker intellects. As a consequence certain persons, disdaining the toil of learning to speak well, returned to the task of forming character and establishing rules of life and kept to themselves what is, if we must make a division, the better part of philosophy, but presumptuously laid claim to the sole possession of the title of philosopher, a distinction which neither the greatest generals nor the most famous statesmen and administrators have ever dared to claim for themselves. For they preferred the performance to the promise of great deeds. |
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Ac veterum quidem sapientiae professorum multos et honesta praecepisse et , ut praeceperint , etiam vixisse , facile concesserim ; nostris vero temporibus sub hoc nomine maxima in plerisque vitia latuerunt . Non enim virtute ac studiis , ut haberentur philosophi , laborabant , sed vultum et tristitiam et dissentientem a ceteris habitum pessimis moribus praetendebant .
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I am ready to admit that many of the old philosophers inculcated the most excellent principles and practised what they preached. But in our own day the name of philosopher has too often been the mask for the worst vices. For their attempt has not been to win the name of philosopher by virtue and the earnest search for wisdom; instead they have sought to disguise the depravity of their characters by the assumption of a stern and austere mien accompanied by the wearing of a garb differing from that of their fellow men. |
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Haec autem , quae velut propria philosophiae asseruntur , passim tractamus omnes . Quis enim non de iusto , aequo ac bono , modo non et vir pessimus , loquitur ? quis non etiam rusticorum aliqua de causis naturalibus quaerit ? nam verborum proprietas ac differentia omnibus , qui sermonem curae habent , debet esse communis .
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Now as a matter of fact we all of us frequently handle those themes which philosophy claims for its own. Who, short of being an utter villain, does not speak of justice, equity and virtue? Who (and even common country-folk are no exception) does not make some inquiry into the causes of natural phenomena? As for the special uses and distinctions of words, they should be a subject of study common to all who give any thought to the meaning of language. |
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Sed ea et sciet optime et eloquetur orator ; qui si fuisset aliquando perfectus , non a philosophorum scholis virtutis praecepta peterentur . Nunc necesse est ad eos aliquando auctores recurrere , qui desertam , ut dixi , partem oratoriae artis , meliorem praesertim , occupaverunt , et velut nostrum reposcere ; non ut nos illorum utamur inventis , sed ut illos alienis usos esse doceamus .
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But it is surely the orator who will have the greatest mastery of all such departments of knowledge and the greatest power to express it in words. And if ever he had reached perfection, there would be no need to go to the schools of philosophy for the precepts of virtue. As things stand, it is occasionally necessary to have recourse to those authors who have, as I said above, usurped the better part of the art of oratory after its desertion by the orators and to demand back what is ours by right, not with a view to appropriating their discoveries, but to show them that they have appropriated what in truth belonged to others. |
| 21 |
Sit igitur orator vir talis , qualis vere sapiens appellari possit ; nec moribus modo perfectus ( nam id mea quidem opinione , quanquam sunt qui dissentiant , satis non est ) sed etiam scientia et omni facultate dicendi , qualis fortasse nemo adhuc fuerit ;
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Let our ideal orator then be such as to have a genuine title to the name of philosopher: it is not sufficient that he should be blameless in point of character (for I cannot agree with those who hold this opinion): he must also be a thorough master of the science and the art of speaking, to an extent that perhaps no orator has yet attained. |
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sed non ideo minus nobis ad summa tendendum est ; quod fecerunt plerique veterum , qui , etsi nondum quemquam sapientem repertum putabant , praecepta tamen sapientiae tradiderant .
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Still we must none the less follow the ideal, as was done by not a few of the ancients, who, though they refused to admit that the perfect sage had yet been found, none the less handed down precepts of wisdom for the use of posterity. |
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Nam est certe aliquid consummata eloquentia , neque ad eam pervenire natura humani ingenii prohibet . Quod si non contingat , altius tamen ibunt , qui ad summa nitentur , quam qui , praesumpta desperatione quo velint evadendi , protinus circa ima substiterint .
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Perfect eloquence is assuredly a reality, which is not beyond the reach of human intellect. Even if we fail to reach it, those whose aspirations are highest, will attain to greater heights than those who abandon themselves to premature despair of ever reaching the goal and halt at the very foot of the ascent. |
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Quo magis impetranda erit venia , si ne minora quidem illa , verum operi , quod instituimus , necessaria praeteribo . Nam liber primus ea , quae sunt ante officium rhetoris , continebit . Secundo prima apud rhetorem elementa et quae de ipsa rhetorices substantia quaeruntur tractabimus .
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I have therefore all the juster claim to indulgence, if I refuse to pass by those minor details which are none the less essential to my task. My first book will be concerned with the education preliminary to the duties of the teacher of rhetoric. My second will deal with the rudiments of the schools of rhetoric and with problems connected with the essence of rhetoric itself. |
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Quinque deinceps inventioni ( nam huic et dispositio subiungitur ) , quattuor elocutioni , in cuius partem memoria ac pronuntiatio veniunt , dabuntur . Unus accedet , in quo nobis orator ipse informandus est , ubi , qui mores eius , quae in suscipiendis , discendis , agendis causis ratio , quod eloquentiae genus , quis agendi debeat esse finis , quae post fine studia , quantum nostra valebit infirmitas , disseremus .
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The next five will be concerned with Invention, in which I include Arrangement. The four following will be assigned to Eloquence, under which head I include Memory and Delivery. Finally there will be one book in which our complete orator will be delineated; as far as my feeble powers permit, I shall discuss his character, the rules which should guide him in undertaking, studying and pleading cases, the style of his eloquence, the time at which he should cease to plead cases and the studies to which he should devote himself after such cessation. |
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His omnibus admiscebitur , ut quisque locus postulabit , docendi ratio , quae non eorum modo scientia , quibus solis quidam nomen artis dederunt , studiosos instruat et ( ut sic dixerim ) ius ipsum rhetorices interpretetur , sed alere facundiam , vires augere eloquentiae possit .
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In the course of these discussions I shall deal in its proper place with the method of teaching by which students will acquire not merely a knowledge of those things to which the name of art is restricted by certain theorists, and will not only come to understand the laws of rhetoric, but will acquire that which will increase their powers of speech and nourish their eloquence. |
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Nam plerumque nudae illae artes nimia subtilitatis adfectatione frangunt atque concidunt quidquid est in oratione generosius , et omnem sucum ingenii bibunt et ossa detegunt : quae ut esse et adstringi nervis suis debent , sic corpore operienda sunt .
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For as a rule the result of the dry textbooks on the art of rhetoric is that by straining after excessive subtlety they impair and cripple all the nobler elements of style, exhaust the lifeblood of the imagination and leave but the bare bones, which, while it is right and necessary that they should exist and be bound each to each by their respective ligaments, require a covering of flesh as well. |
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Ideoque nos non particulam illam , sicut plerique , sed quidquid utile ad instituendum oratorem putabamus , in hos duodecim libros contulimus breviter omnia demonstraturi . Nam si quantum de quaque re dici potest persequamur , finis operis non reperietur .
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I shall therefore avoid the precedent set by the majority and shall not restrict myself to this narrow conception of my theme, but shall include in my twelve books a brief demonstration of everything which may seem likely to contribute to the education of an orator. For if I were to attempt to say all that might be said on each subject, the book would never be finished. |
| 29 |
Illud tamen in primis testandum est , nihil praecepta atque artes valere nisi adiuvante natura . Quapropter ei , cui deerit ingenium , non magis haec scripta sint quam de agrorum cultu sterilibus terris .
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There is however one point which I must emphasise before I begin, which is this. Without natural gifts technical rules are useless. Consequently the student who is devoid of talent will derive no more profit from this work than barren soil from a treatise on agriculture. |
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Sunt et alia ingenita cuique adiumenta , vox , latus patiens laboris , valetudo , constantia , decor ; quae si modica obtigerunt , possunt ratione ampliari , sed nonnunquam ita desunt , ut bona etiam ingenii studiique corrumpant ; sicut et haec ipsa sine doctore perito , studio pertinaci , scribendi , legendi , dicendi multa et continua exercitatione per se nihil prosunt .
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There are, it is true, other natural aids, such as the possession of a good voice and robust lungs, sound health, powers of endurance and grace, and if these are possessed only to a moderate extent, they may be improved by methodical training. In some cases, however, these gifts are lacking to such an extent that their absence is fatal to all such advantages as talent and study can confer, while, similarly, they are of no profit in themselves unless cultivated by skilful teaching, persistent study and continuous and extensive practice in writing, reading and speaking. |
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Igitur nato filio pater spem de illo primum quam optimam capiat , ita diligentior a principiis fiet . Falsa enim est querela , paucissimis hominibus vim percipiendi , quae tradantur , esse concessam , plerosque vero laborem ac tempora tarditate ingenii perdere . Nam contra plures reperias et faciles in excogitando et ad discendum promptos . Quippe id est homini naturale ; ac sicut aves ad volatum , equi ad cursum , ad saevitiam ferae gignuntur ; ita nobis propria est mentis agitatio atque sollertia , unde origo animi caelestis creditur .
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I would, therefore, have a father conceive the highest hopes of his son from the moment of his birth. If he does so, he will be more careful about the groundwork of his education. For there is absolutely no foundation for the complaint that but few men have the power to take in the knowledge that is imparted to them, and that the majority are so slow of understanding that education is a waste of time and labour. On the contrary you will find that most are quick to reason and ready to learn. Reasoning comes as naturally to man as flying to birds, speed to horses and ferocity to beasts of prey: our minds are endowed by nature with such activity and sagacity that the soul is believed to proceed from heaven. |
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Hebetes vero et indociles non magis secundum naturam homines eduntur quam prodigiosa corpora et monstris insignia , sed hi pauci admodum fuerunt . Argumentum quod in pueris elucet spes plurimorum , quae cum emoritur aetate , manifestum est , non naturam defecisse sed curam . Praestat tamen ingenio alius alium .
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Those who are dull and unteachable are as abnormal as prodigious births and monstrosities, and are but few in number. A proof of what I say is to be found in the fact that boys commonly show promise of many accomplishments, and when such promise dies away as they grow up, this is plainly due not to the failure of natural gifts, but to lack of the requisite care. But, it will be urged, there are degrees of talent. |
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Concedo ; sed plus efficiet aut minus ; nemo reperitur , qui sit studio nihil consecutus . Hoc qui perviderit , protinus ut erit parens factus , acrem quam maxime curam spei futuri oratoris impendat .
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Undoubtedly, I reply, and there will be a corresponding variation in actual accomplishment: but that there are any who gain nothing from education, I absolutely deny. The man who shares this conviction, must, as soon as he becomes a father, devote the utmost care to fostering the promise shown by the son whom he destines to become an orator. |
| 34 |
Ante omnia ne sit vitiosus sermo nutricibus , quas si fieri posset sapientes Chrysippus optavit , certe quantum res pateretur optimas eligi voluit . Et morum quidem in his haud dubie prior ratio est , recte tamen etiam loquantur .
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Above all see that the child's nurse speaks correctly. The ideal, according to Chrysippus, would be that she should be a philosopher: failing that he desired that the best should be chosen, as far as possible. No doubt the most important point is that they should be of good character: but they should speak correctly as well. |
| 35 |
Has primum audiet puer , harum verba effingere imitando conabitur . Et natura tenacissimi sumus eorum , quae rudibus animis percepimus ; ut sapor , quo nova imbuas , durat , nec lanarum colores , quibus simplex ille candor mutatus est , elui possunt . Et haec ipsa magis pertinaciter haerent , quo deteriora sunt . Nam bona facile mutantur in peius ; num quando in bonum verteris vitia ? Non assuescat ergo , ne dum infans quidem est , sermoni qui dediscendus sit .
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It is the nurse that the child first hears, and her words that he will first attempt to imitate. And we are by nature most tenacious of childish impressions, just as the flavour first absorbed by vessels when new persists, and the colour imparted by dyes to the primitive whiteness of wool is indelible. Further it is the worst impressions that are most durable. For, while what is good readily deteriorates, you will never turn vice into virtue. Do not therefore allow the boy to become accustomed even in infancy to a style of speech which he will subsequently have to unlearn. |
| 36 |
In parentibus vero quam plurimum esse eruditionis optaverim , nec de patribus tantum loquor . Nam Gracchorum eloquentiae multum contulisse accepimus Corneliam matrem , cuius doctissimus sermo in posteros quoque est epistolis traditus : et Laelia C . filia reddidisse in loquendo paternam elegantiam dicitur , et Hortensiae Q . filiae oratio apud Triumviros habita legitur non tantum in sexus honorem .
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As regards parents, I should like to see them as highly educated as possible, and I do not restrict this remark to fathers alone. We are told that the eloquence of the Gracchi owed much to their mother Cornelia, whose letters even to-day testify to the cultivation of her style. Laelia, the daughter of Gaius Laelius, is said to have reproduced the elegance of her father's language in her own speech, while the oration delivered before the triumvirs by Hortensia, the daughter of Quintus Hortensius, is still read and not merely as a compliment to her sex. |
| 37 |
Nec tamen ii , quibus discere ipsis non contigit , minorem curam docendi liberos habeant ; sed sint propter hoc ipsum ad cetera magis diligentes .
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And even those who have not had the fortune to receive a good education should not for that reason devote less care to their son's education; but should on the contrary show all the greater diligence in other matters where they can be of service to their children. |
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De pueris , inter quos educabitur ille huic spei destinatus , idem quod de nutricibus dictum sit . De paedagogis hoc amplius , ut aut sint eruditi plene , quam primam esse curam velim , aut se non esse eruditos sciant . Nihil est peius iis , qui paulum aliquid ultra primas litteras progressi falsam sibi scientiae persuasionem induerunt . Nam et cedere praecipiendi partibus indignantur et velut iure quodam potestatis , quo fere hoc hominum genus intumescit , imperiosi atque interim saevientes stultitiam suam perdocent .
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As regards the boys in whose company our budding orator is to be brought up, I would repeat what I have said about nurses. As regards his paedagogi, I would urge that they should have had a thorough education, or if they have not, that they should be aware of the fact. There are none worse than those, who as soon as they have progressed beyond a knowledge of the alphabet delude themselves into the belief that they are the possessors of real knowledge. For they disdain to stoop to the drudgery of teaching, and conceiving that they have acquired a certain title to authority—a frequent source of vanity in such persons—become imperious or even brutal in instilling a thorough dose of their own folly. |