Institutio Oratoria |
Translator: Harold Edgeworth Butler
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| 1141 |
hoc tantum indicasset . Quod idem in Demosthene , si flexum illi mutaveris , accidit . Quid ? non Sallustius derecto ad Ciceronem , in quem ipsum dicebat , usus est principio , et quidem protinus ? Graviter et iniquo animo maledicta tua paterer , Marce Tulli , sicut Cicero fecerat in Catilinam:
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In the original form Cicero attacks his opponent and presses him hard, in the passage as altered he would merely have pointed out a fact. The same thing results if you alter the turn of the passage in Demosthenes. Again did not Sallust when speaking against Cicero himself address his exordium to him and not to the judge? In fact he actually opens with the words "I should feel deeply injured by your reflexions on my character, Marcus Tullius," wherein he followed the precedent set by Cicero in his speech against Catiline where he opens with the words "How long will you continue to abuse our patience?" |
| 1142 |
Quo usque tandem abutere ? Ac , ne quis apostrophen miretur , idem Cicero pro Scauro ambitus reo , quae causa est in commentariis ( nam bis eundem defendit ) , prosopopoeia loquentis pro reo utitur , pro Rabirio vero Postumo eodemque Scauro reo repetundarum etiam exemplis , pro Cluentio ( ut modo ostendi ) partitione .
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Finally to remove all reason for feeling surprise at the employment of apostrophe, Cicero in his defence of Scaurus, on a charge of bribery (the speech is to be found in his Notebooks; for he defended him twice) actually introduces an imaginary person speaking on behalf of the accused, while in his pro Rahirio and his speech in defence of this same Scaurus on a charge of extortion he employs illustrations, and in the pro Cluentio, as I have already pointed out, introduces division into heads. |
| 1143 |
Non tamen haec , quia possunt bene aliquando fieri , passim facienda sunt , sed quotiens praeceptum vicerit ratio ; quomodo et similitudine , dum brevi , et translatione atque aliis tropis ( quae omnia cauti illi ac diligentes prohibent ) utemur interim , nisi cui divina ilia pro Ligario ironia , de qua paulo ante dixeram , displicet .
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Still such artifices, although they may be employed at times to good effect, are not to be indulged in indiscriminately, but only when there is strong reason for breaking the rule. The same remark applies to simile (which must however be brief), metaphor and other tropes, all of which are forbidden by our cautious and pedantic teachers of rhetoric, but which we shall none the less occasionally employ, unless indeed we are to disapprove of the magnificent example of irony in the pro Ligario to which I have already referred a few pages back. |
| 1144 |
Alia exordiorum vitia verius tradiderunt . Quod in plures causas accommodari potest , vulgare dicitur ; id minus favorabile aliquando tamen non inutiliter adsumimus , magnis saepe oratoribus non evitatum . Quo et adversarius uti potest , commune appellatur ; quod adversarius in suam utilitatem deflectere potest , commutabile ; quod causae non cohaeret , separatum ; quod aliunde trahitur , tralatum ; praeterea quod longum , quod contra praecepta est ; quorum pleraque non principii modo sunt vitia sed totius orationis . Haec de prooemio ,
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The rhetoricians have however been nearer the truth in their censure of certain other faults that may occur in the exordium. The stock exordium which can be suited to a number of different cases they style vulgar; it is an unpopular form but can sometimes be effectively employed and has often been adopted by some of the greatest orators. The exordium which might equally well be used by our opponent, they style common. That which our opponent can turn to his own advantage, they call interchangeable, that which is irrelevant to the case, detached, and that which is drawn from some other speech, transferred. In addition to these they censure others as long and others as contrary to rule. Most of these faults are however not peculiar to the exordinum, but may be found in any or every portion of a speech. |
| 1145 |
quotiens erit eius usus , non semper autem est ; nam et supervacuum aliquando est , si sit praeparatus satis etiam sine hoc iudex , aut si res praeparatione non egeat . Aristoteles quidem in totum id necessarium apud bonos iudices negat . Aliquando tamen uti nec si velimus eo licet , cum index occupatus , cum angusta sunt tempora , cum maior potestas ab ipsa re cogit incipere .
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Such are the rules for the exordium, wherever it is employed. It may however sometimes be dispensed with. For occasionally it is superfluous, if the judge has been sufficiently prepared for our speech without it or if the case is such as to render such preparation unnecessary. Aristotle indeed says that with good judges the exordium is entirely unnecessary. Sometimes however it is impossible to employ it, even if we desire to do so, when, for instance, the judge is much occupied, when time is short or superior authority forces us to embark upon the subject right away. |
| 1146 |
Contraque est interim prooemii vis etiam non exordio . Nam indices et in narratione nonnunquam et in argumentis ut attendant et ut faveant rogamus , quo Prodicus velut dormitantes eos excitari putabat , quale est :
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On the other hand it is at times possible to give the force of an exordium to other portions of the speech. For instance we may ask the judges in the course of our statement of the facts or of our arguments to give us their best attention and good-will, a proceeding which Prodicus recommended as a means of wakening them when they begin to nod. A good example is the following: |
| 1147 |
Tum C . Varenus , is qui a familia Anchariana occisus est — hoc , quaeso , iudices , diligenter attendite .Utique si multiplex causa est , sua quibusque partibus danda praefatio est , ut Audite nunc reliqua , et Transeo nunc illuc .
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" Gaius Varenus, he who was killed by the slaves of Ancharius—I beg you, gentlemen, to give me your best attention at this point. " Further if the case involves a number of different matters, each section must be prefaced with a short introduction, such as "Listen now to what follows," or "I now pass to the next point." |
| 1148 |
Sed in ipsis etiam probationibus multa funguntur prooemii vice , ut facit Cicero pro Cluentio dicturus contra censores , pro Murena , cum se Servio excusat . Verum id frequentius est , quam ut exemplis confirmandum sit .
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Even in the proof there are many passages which perform the same function as an exordium, such as the passage in the pro Cluentio where Cicero introduces an attack on the censors and in the pro Murena when he apologises to Servius. But the practice is too common to need illustration. |
| 1149 |
Quotiens autem prooemio fuerimus usi , tum sive ad expositionem transibimus sive protinus ad probationem , id debebit in principio postremum esse , cui commodissime iungi initium sequentium poterit .
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However on all occasions when we have employed the exordium, whether we intend to pass to the statement of facts or direct to the proof, our intention should be mentioned at the conclusion of the introduction, with the result that the transition to what follows will be smooth and easy. |
| 1150 |
Illa vero frigida et puerilis est in scholis adfectatio , ut ipse transitus efficiat aliquam utique sententiam et huius velut praestigiae plausum petat , ut Ovidius lascivire in Metamorphosesin solet , quem tamen excusare necessitas potest res diversissimas in speciem unius corporis colligentem .
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There is indeed a pedantic and childish affectation in vogue in the schools of marking the transition by some epigram and seeking to win applause by this feat of legerdemain. Ovid is given to this form of affectation in his Metamorphoses, but there is some excuse for him owing to the fact that he is compelled to weld together subjects of the most diverse nature so as to form a continuous whole. |
| 1151 |
Oratori vero quid est necesse surripere hanc transgressionem et iudicem fallere , qui , ut ordini rerum animum intendat , etiam commonendus est ? Peribit enim prima pars expositionis , si iudex narrari nondum sciet .
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But what necessity is there for an orator to gloss over his transitions or to attempt to deceive the judge, who requires on the contrary to be warned to give his attention to the sequence of the various portions of the speech? For instance the first part of our statement of the facts will be wasted, if the judge does not realise that we have reached that stage. |
| 1152 |
Quapropter , ut non abrupte cadere in narrationem , ita non obscure transcendere est optimum . Si vero longior sequetur ac perplexa magis expositio , ad eam ipsam praeparandus erit iudex , ut Cicero saepius , sed et hoc loco fecit : Paulo longius exordium rei demonstrandae repetam , quod , quaeso , iudices , ne moleste patiamini ; principiis enim cognitis multo facilius extrema intelligetis . Haec fere sunt mihi de exordio comperta .
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Therefore, although we should not be too abrupt in passing to our statement of facts, it is best to do nothing to conceal our transition. Indeed, if the statement of fact on which we are about to embark is somewhat long and complicated, we shall do well to prepare the judge for it, as Cicero often does, most notably in the following passage: " The introduction to my exposition of this point will be rather longer than usual, but I beg you, gentlemen, not to take it ill. For if you get a firm grasp of the beginning, you will find it much easier to follow what comes last. " This is practically all that I can find to say on the subject of the exordium. |
| 1153 |
Maxime naturale est et fieri frequentissime debet , ut praeparato per haec , quae supra dicta sunt , iudice res , de qua pronuntiaturus est , indicetur . Haec est narratio .
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II. It is a most natural and frequently necessary proceeding, that after preparing the mind of the judge in the manner described above we should indicate the nature of the subject on which he will have to give judgment: that is the statement of facts. |
| 1154 |
In qua sciens transcurram subtiles nimium divisiones quorundam plura eius genera facientium . Non enim solam volunt esse illam negotii , de quo apud iudices quaeritur , expositionem , sed personae , ut M . Lollius Palicanus , humili loco Picens , loquax magis quam facundus ; loci , ut Oppidum est in Hellesponto Lampsacum , indices ; temporis ut " Vere nouo , gelidus canis cum montibus humo ? Liquitur ; " causarum , quibus historici frequentissime utuntur , cum exponunt , unde bellum , seditio , pestilentia .
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In dealing with this question I shall deliberately pass over the divisions made by certain writers, who make too many classes and err on the side of subtlety. For they demand an explanation dealing not only with the facts of the case which is before the court, but with the person involved (as in the sentence, " Marcus Lollius Palicanus, a Picentine of humble birth, a man gifted with loquacity rather than eloquence " ) or of the place where an incident occurred (as in the sentence "Lampsacus, gentlemen, is a town situated on the Hellespont" ), or of the time at which something occurred (as in the verse "In early spring, when on the mountains hoar The snows dissolve)," or of the causes of an occurrence, such as the historians are so fond of setting forth, when they explain the origin of a war, a rebellion or a pestilence. Further they style some statements of fact "complete," and others "incomplete, |
| 1155 |
Praeter haec alias perfectas , alias imperfectas vocant ; quod quis ignorat ? Adiiciunt expositionem et praeteritorum esse temporum , quae est frequentissima , et praesentium , qualis est Ciceronis de discursu amicorum Chrysogoni , postquam est nominatus , et futurorum , quae solis dari uaticinantibus potest ; nam ὑποτύπωσις non est habenda narratio .
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" a distinction which is self-evident. To this they add that our explanation may refer to the past (which is of course the commonest form), the present (for which compare Cicero's remarks about the excitement caused among the friends of Chrysogonus when his name was mentioned), or of the future (a form permissible only to prophets): for hypotyposis or picturesque description cannot be regarded as a statement of facts. |
| 1156 |
Sed nos potioribus vacemus . Plerique semper narrandum putaverunt , quod falsum esse pluribus coarguitur . Sunt enim ante omnia quaedam tam breves causae , ut propositionem potius habeant quam narrationem .
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However let us pass to matters of more importance. The majority regard the statement of facts as being indispensable: but there are many considerations which show that this view is erroneous. In the first place there are some cases which are so brief, that they require only a brief summary rather than a full statement of the facts. |
| 1157 |
Id accidit aliquando utrique parti , cum vel nulla expositio est , vel de re constat , de iure quaeritur , ut apud centumviros , filius an frater debeat esse intestatae heres , pubertas annis an corporis habitu aestimetur : aut cum est quidem in re narrationi locus , sed aut ante iudici nota sunt omnia aut priore loco recte exposita . Accidit aliquando alteri et saepius ab actore ,
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This may apply to both parties to a suit, as for instance in cases where there is no necessity for explanation or where the facts are admitted and the whole question turns on a point of law, as it so often does in the centumviral court, as for example when we discuss, whether the heir of a woman who has died intestate should be her son or brother, or whether puberty is to be reckoned by age or by physical development. The same situation arises also in cases where the facts admit of full statement, but are well known to the judge or have been correctly set forth by a previous speaker. |
| 1158 |
vel quia satis est proponere vel quia sic magis expedit . Satis est dixisse , Certam creditam pecuniam peto ex stipulatione ; Legatum peto ex testamento . Diverse partis expositio est , cur ea non debeantur .
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Sometimes again the statement of facts can be dispensed with only by one party, who is generally the plaintiff, either because it is sufficient for him to make a simple summary of his case or because it is more expedient for him to do so. It may, for instance, suffice to say, "I claim repayment of a certain sum of money which was lent on certain conditions" or "I claim a legacy in accordance with the terms of the will." It is for the other party to explain why these sums are not due to the plaintiff. |
| 1159 |
Et satis est actori et magis expedit sic indicare : Dico ab Horatio sororem suam interfectam . Namque et propositione iudex crimen omne cognoscit , et ordo et causa facti pro adversario magis est .
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Again it is sometimes sufficient and expedient to summarise a case in one sentence such as "I say that Horatius killed his sister." For the judge will understand the whole charge from this simple affirmation: the sequence of events and the motive for the deed will be matters for the defence to expound. |
| 1160 |
Reus contra tunc narrationem subtrahet , cum id , quod obiicitur , neque negari neque excusari poterit , sed in sola iuris quaestione consistet ; ut in eo , qui , cum pecuniam privatam ex aede sacra surripuerit , sacrilegii reus est , confessio verecundior quam expositio : Non negamus de templo pecuniam esse sublatam , calumniatur tamen accusator actione sacrilegii , cum privata fuerit non sacra ; vos autem de hoc cognoscetis , an sacrilegium sit admissum .
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On the other hand in some cases the accused may dispense with the statement of facts, when for instance the charge can neither be denied nor palliated, but turns solely on some point of law: the following case will illustrate my meaning. A man who has stolen from a temple money belonging to a private individual is accused of sacrilege: in such a case a confession will be more seemly than a full statement of facts: " We do not deny that the money was taken from the temple; but the accuser is bringing a false accusation in charging my client with sacrilege, since the money was not consecrated, but private property: it is for you to decide whether under these circumstances sacrilege has been committed. " |
| 1161 |
Sed ut has aliquando non narrandi causas puto , sic ab illis dissentio , qui non existimant esse narrationem , cum reus quod obiicitur tantum negat ; in qua est opinione Cornelius Celsus , qui condicionis huius esse arbitratur plerasque caedis causas et omnes ambitus ac repetundarum .
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While however I think that there are occasional cases where the statement of facts may be dispensed with, I disagree with those who say that there is no statement of facts when the accused simply denies the charge. This opinion is shared by Cornelius Celsus who holds that most cases of murder and all of bribery and extortion fall into this class. |
| 1162 |
Non enim putat esse narrationem , nisi quae summam criminis de quo iudicium est contineat , deinde fatetur ipse pro Rabirio Postumo narrasse Ciceronem ; atque ille et negavit pervenisse ad Rabirium pecuniam , qua de re erat quaestio constituta , et in hac narratione nihil de crimine exposuit .
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For he thinks that the only statement of facts is that which gives a general account of the charge before the court. Yet he himself acknowledges that Cicero employed the statement of facts in his defence of Rabirius Postumus, in spite of the fact that Cicero denies that any money came into the hands of Rabirius (and this was the question at issue) and gives no explanations relating to the actual charge in his statement of facts. |
| 1163 |
Ego autem magnos alioqui secutus auctores , duas esse in iudiciis narrationum species existimo , alteram ipsius causae , alteram rerum ad causam pertinentium expositionem .
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For my part I follow the very highest authorities in holding that there are two forms of statement of facts in forensic speeches, the one expounding the facts of the case itself, the other setting forth facts which have a bearing on the case. |
| 1164 |
Non occidi hominem , nulla narratio est ; convenit ; sed erit aliqua et interim etiam longa contra argumenta eius criminis de anteacta vita , de causis , propter quas innocens in periculum deducatur , aliis , quibus incredibile id quod obiicitur fiat .
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I agree that a sentence such as "I did not kill the man" does not amount to a statement of facts: but there will be a statement of facts, occasionally, too, a long one, in answer to the arguments put forward by the accuser: it will deal with the past life of the accused, with the causes which have brought an innocent man into peril, and other circumstances such as show the charge to be incredible. |
| 1165 |
Neque enim accusator tantum hoc dicit , occidisti ; sed , quibus id probet narrat . Ut in tragoediis , cum Teucer Vlixem reum facit Aiacis occisi dicens inventum eum in solitudine iuxta exanime corpus inimici cum gladio cruento , non id modo Ulixes respondet non esse a se id facinus admissum , sed sibi nullas cum Aiace inimicitias fuisse , de laude inter ipsos certatum ; deinde subiungit , quomodo in eam solitudinem venerit , iacentem exanimem sit conspicatus , gladium e vulnere extraxerit .
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For the accuser does not merely say "You killed him," but sets forth the facts proving his assertion: tragedy will provide an example, where Teucer accuses Ulysses of murdering Ajax, and states that he was found in a lonely place near the lifeless body of his enemy with a blood-stained sword in his hands. To this Ulysses does not merely reply that he did not do the deed, but adds that he had no quarrel with Ajax, the contest between them having been concerned solely with the winning of renown: he then goes on to say how he came to be in the lonely place, how he found Ajax lying lifeless and drew the sword from the wound. Then follow arguments based on these facts. |
| 1166 |
His subtexitur argumentatio . Sed ne illud quidem sine narratione est , dicente accusatore , Fuisti in eo loco , in quo tuus inimicus occisus est : Non fui ; dicendum enim , ubi fuerit . Quare ambitus quoque causae et repetundarum hoc etiam plures huiusmodi narrationes habere poterunt , quo plura crimina ; in quibus ipsa quidem neganda sunt , sed argumentis expositione contraria resistendum est interdum singulis interdum universis .
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But even when the accuser says "You were found on the spot where your enemy was killed" and the accused says "I was not," a statement of facts is involved; for he must say where he was. Consequently cases of bribery and extortion will require as many statements of this kind as there are charges: the charges themselves will be denied, but it will be necessary to counter the arguments of the accuser either singly or all together by setting forth the facts in quite a different light. |
| 1167 |
An reus ambitus male narrabit , quos parentes habuerit , quemadmodum ipse vixerit , quibus meritis fretus ad petitionem descenderit ? Aut qui repetundarum crimine insimulabitur , non et anteactam vitam , et quibus de causis provinciam universam vel accusatorem aut testem offenderit ,
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Is it, I ask you, irrelevant for one accused of bribery to set forth his parentage, his past life and the services on which he relied for success in his candidature? And if a man is indicted for extortion, will it not be to his advantage to set forth not merely his past record, but also the reasons which have made the whole province or the accuser or a witness hostile to himself? |
| 1168 |
non inutiliter exponet ? Quae si narratio non est , ne illa quidem Ciceronis pro Cluentio prima , cuius est initium : A . Cluentius Habitus .Nihil enim hic de veneficio , sed de causis , quibus ei mater inimica sit , dicit .
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If these are not statements of facts, neither is the first portion of Cicero's defence of Cluentius, beginning with the words "Aulus Cluentius Habitus." For there he says nothing about the charge of poisoning, but confines himself entirely to setting forth the reasons for the hostility of Cluentius' mother to her son. |
| 1169 |
Illae quoque sunt pertinentes ad causam sed non ipsius causae narrationes : vel exempli gratia ut in Verrem de L . Domitio , qui pastorem , quod is aprum , quem ipsi muneri obtulerat , exceptum esse a se venabulo confessus esset , in crucem sustulit ; vel discutiendi alicuius extrinsecus criminis ,
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There are also statements which do not set forth the facts of the case itself, but facts which are none the less relevant to the case: the speaker's purpose may be to illustrate the case by some parallel, as in the passage in the Verrines about Lucius Domitius who crucified a shepherd because he admitted that he had used a hunting spear to kill the boar which he had brought him as a present; |
| 1170 |
ut pro Rabirio Postumo : Nam ut ventum Alexandriam est , iudices , haec una ratio a rege proposita Postumo est servandae pecuniae , si curationem et quasi dispensationem regiam suscepisset ; vel augendi , ut describitur iter Verris .
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or he may desire to dispel some charge that is irrelevant to the case as in the passage of the speech for Rabirius Postumus, which runs as follows: " For when he came to Alexandria, gentlemen, the only means of saving his money which the king suggested to Postumus was that he should take charge of the royal household and act as a kind of steward. " Or the orator may desire to heighten the effect of his charges, as Cicero does in his description of the journey of Verres. |
| 1171 |
Ficta interim narratio introduci solet , vel ad concitandos iudices ut pro Roscio circa Chrysogonum , cuius paulo ante habui mentionem ; vel ad resolvendos aliqua urbanitate , ut pro Cluentio circa fratres Caepasios ; interdum per digressionem decoris gratia , qualis rursus in Verrem de Proserpina , In his quondam locis mater filiam quaesisse dicitur . Quae omnia eo pertinent , ut appareat non utique non narrare eum qui negat , sed illud ipsum narrare quod negat .
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Sometimes a fictitious statement is employed either to stir the emotions of the judges, as in that passage of the proo Roscio Amerino dealing with Chrysogonus to which I referred just recently, or to entertain them with a show of wit, as in the passage of the pro Cluentio describing the brothers Caepasius: sometimes again a digression may be introduced to add beauty to the speech, as in the passage about Proserpine in the Verrines, beginning "It was here that a mother is once said to have sought her daughter." All these examples serve to show that he who denies a charge may not necessarily refrain from stating, but may actually state that very fact which he denies. |
| 1172 |
Ne hoc quidem simpliciter accipiendum , quod est a me positum , esse supervacuam narrationem rei , quam iudex noverit ; quod sic intelligi volo , si non modo quid factum sit sciet , sed ita factum etiam , ut nobis expedit , opinabitur .
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Even the assertion which I made above to the effect that a statement of facts familiar to the judge is superfluous, is not to be taken too literally. My meaning is that it may be dispensed with, if the judge knows not merely what has been done, but takes a view of the facts which is favourable to our case. |
| 1173 |
Neque enim narratio in hoc reperta est , ut tantum cognoscat index , sed aliquanto magis , ut consentiat . Quare , etiamsi non erit docendus , sed aliquo modo adficiendus , narrabimus cum praeparatione quadam : scire quidem eum in summam , quid acti sit , tamen rationem quoque facti cuiusque cognoscere ne gravetur .
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For the purpose of the statement of facts is not merely to instruct, but rather to persuade the judge. Therefore, when we desire to influence him in some way or other, although he may require no instruction, we shall preface our statement with some such remarks as these: " I know that you are aware of the general nature of the case, but I trust you will not take it ill if I ask you to consider each point in detail. " |
| 1174 |
Interim propter aliquem in consilium adhibitum nos repetere illa simulemus , interim , ut rei , quae ex adverso proponatur , iniquitatem omnes etiam circumstantes intelligant . In quo genere plurimis figuris erit varianda expositio ad effugiendum taedium nota audientis , sicut Meministi , et Fortasse supervacuum fuerit hic commorari . Sed quid ego diutius , cum tu optime noris ?
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At times again we may pretend that we are repeating the facts for the benefit of some new member of the jury, at times that we do so with a view to letting every bystander as well realise the gross unfairness of our opponents' assertions. Under these circumstances our statement must be diversified by a free use of figures to avoid wearying those to whom the facts are familiar: we shall for instance use phrases such as "You remember, "It may perhaps be superfluous to dwell on this point, "But why should I say more, as you are well acquainted with the fact?" , "You are not ignorant how this matter stands" and so on. |
| 1175 |
Illud quale sit , tu scias , et his similia . Alioqui si apud iudicem , cui nota causa est , narratio semper videtur supervacua , potest videri non semper esse etiam ipsa actio necessaria .
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Besides, if we are always to regard as superfluous a statement of facts made before a judge who is familiar with the case, we may even go so far as to regard it as superfluous at times to plead the case at all. |
| 1176 |
Alterum est , de quo frequentius quaeritur , an sit utique narratio prooemio subiicienda ; quod qui opinantur , non possunt videri nulla ratione ducti . Nam cum prooemium idcirco comparatum sit , ut iudex ad rem accipiendam fiat conciliatior , docilior , intentior , et probatio nisi causa prius cognita non possit adhiberi , protinus iudex notitia rerum instruendus videtur .
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There is a further question which is still more frequently raised, as to whether the statement of facts should always follow immediately on the exordium. Those who hold that it should always do so must be admitted to have some reason on their side. For since the purpose of the exordium is to make the judge more favourably disposed and more attentive to our case and more amenable to instruction, and since the proof cannot be brought forward until the facts of the case are known, it seems right that the judge should be instructed in the facts without delay. |
| 1177 |
Sed hoc quoque interim mutat condicio causarum ; nisi forte M . Tullius in oratione pulcherrima , quam pro Milone scriptam reliquit , male distulisse narrationem videtur tribus praepositis quaestionibus ; aut profuisset exponere , quomodo insidias Miloni fecisset Clodius , si reum , qui a se hominem occisum fateretur , defendi omnino fas non fuisset , aut si iam praeiudicio senatus damnatus esset Milo , aut si Cn . Pompeius , qui praeter aliam gratiam iudicium etiam militibus armatis clauserat , tanquam adversus ei timeretur .
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But the practice may be altered by circumstances, unless it is contended that Cicero in his magnificent published defence of Milo delayed his statement too long by placing three questions before it; or unless it is argued that, if it bad been held to be impermissible to defend a man at all who acknowledged that he had killed another, or if Milo's case had already been prejudged and condemnation passed by the senate, or if Gnaeus Pompeius, who in addition to exerting his influence in other ways had surrounded the court with an armed guard, had been regarded with apprehension as hostile to the accused, it would have served his case to set forth how Clodius had set an ambush for Milo. |
| 1178 |
Ergo hae quoque quaestiones vim prooemii obtinebant , cum omnes iudicem praepararent . Sed pro Vareno quoque postea narravit quam obiecta diluit . Quod fiet utiliter , quotiens non repellendum tantum erit crimen , sed etiam transferendum , ut his prius defensis velut initium sit alium culpandi narratio , ut in armorum ratione antiquior cavendi quam ictum inferendi cura est .
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These three questions, then, served the purpose of an exordium, since they all of them were designed to prepare the minds of the judges. Again in the pro Vareno Cicero delayed his statement of facts until he had first rebutted certain allegations put forward by the prosecution. This may be done with advantage whenever we have not merely to rebut the charge, but to turn the tables on our opponents: thus after first rebutting the charge, we make our statement of facts the opening of an incrimination of the other party just as in actual fighting we are most concerned to parry our adversary's blows before we strike him ourselves. |