Institutio Oratoria (Quintilian)

[Close]

	Institutio Oratoria Author: Quintilian	Translator: Harold Edgeworth Butler
2243	Quaestionem aut ex scripto esse aut ex facto ; facto , de rerum fide , proprietate , qualitate ; scripto , de verborum vi aut voluntate , in quibus vis tum causarum tum actionum inspici soleat , quae aut scripti et voluntatis aut ratiocinativa aut ambiguitatis aut legum contrariarum specie continentur .	I proceeded to show that questions must turn either on something written or something done: in the latter case we have to consider the truth of the facts together with their special character and quality; in the former we consider the meaning or the intention of the words, with reference to which we usually examine the nature of all cases, criminal or civil, which fall under the heads of the letter and intention, the syllogism, ambiguity or contrary lairs.
2244	In omni porro causa iudiciali quinque esse partes , quarum exordio conciliari audientem , narratione doceri , probatione proposita confirmari , refutatione contra dicta dissolvi , peroratione aut memoriam refici aut animos moveri .	I went on to point out that in all forensic cases the speech consists of five parts, the exordium designed to conciliate the audience, the statement of facts designed to instruct him, the proof which confirms our own propositions, the refutation which overthrows the arguments of our opponents, and the peroration which either refreshes the memory of our hearers or plays upon their emotions.
2245	His argumentandi et adficiendi locos et quibus generibus concitari , placari , resolvi iudices oporteret , adiecimus . Accessit ratio divisionis . Credere modo qui discet velit materiam quandam variam esse , et in qua multa etiam sine doctrina praestare debeat per se ipsa natura , ut haec de quibus dixi non tam inventa a praeceptoribus quam cum fierent observata esse videantur .	I then dealt with the sources of arguments and emotion, and indicated the means by which the judges should be excited, placated, or amused. Finally I demonstrated the method of division. But I would ask that the student who is really desirous of learning should believe that there are also a variety of subjects with regard to which nature itself should provide much of the requisite knowledge without any assistance from formal teaching, so that the precepts of which I have spoken may be regarded not so much as having been discovered by the professors of rhetoric as having been noted by them when they presented themselves.
2246	Plus exigunt laboris et curae quae sequuntur . Hinc enim iam elocutionis rationem tractabimus , partem operis , ut inter omnes oratores convenit , difficillimam . Nam et M . Antonius , cuius supra mentionem habuimus , cum a se disertos visos esse multos ait , eloquentem neminem : diserto satis putat dicere quae oporteat , ornate autem dicere proprium esse eloquentissimi .	The points which follow require greater care and industry. For I have now to discuss the theory of style, a subject which, as all orators agree, presents the greatest difficulty. For Marcus Antonius, whom I mentioned above, states that lie has seen many good, but no really eloquent speakers, and holds that, while to be a good speaker it is sufficient to say what is necessary, only the really eloquent speaker can do this in ornate and appropriate language.
2247	Quae virtus si usque ad eum in nullo reperta est , ac ne in ipso quidem aut L . Crasso , certum est et in his et in prioribus eam desideratam , quia difficillima fuit . Et Marcus Tullius inventionem quidem ac dispositionem prudentis hominis putat ,	And if this excellence was to be found in no orator up to his own day, and not even in himself or Lucius Crassus, we may regard it as certain that the reason why they and their predecessors lacked this gift was its extreme difficulty of acquisition. Again, Cicero holds that, while invention and arrangement are within the reach of any man of good sense, eloquence belongs to the orator alone, and consequently it was on the rules for the cultivation of eloquence that he expended the greatest care.
2248	eloquentiam oratoris , ideoque praecipue circa praecepta partis huius laboravit . Quod eum merito fecisse etiam ipso rei , de qua loquimur , nomine palam declaratur . Eloqui enim est omnia , quae mente conceperis , promere atque ad audientes perferre ; sine quo supervacua sunt priora et similia gladio condito atque intra vaginam suam haerenti .	That he was justified in so doing is shown clearly by the actual name of the art of which I am speaking. For the verb eloqui means the production and communication to the audience of all that the speaker has conceived in his mind, and without this power all the preliminary accomplishments of oratory are as useless as a sword that is kept permanently concealed within its sheath.
2249	Hoc itaque maxime docetur , hoc nullus nisi arte adsequi potest , hic studium plurimum adhibendum , hoc exercitatio petit , hoc imitatio , hic omnis aetas consumitur , hoc maxime orator oratore praestantior , hoc genera ipsa dicendi alia alia potiora .	Therefore it is on this that teachers of rhetoric concentrate their attention, since it cannot possibly be acquired without the assistance of the rules of artit is this which is the chief object of our study, the goal of all our exercises and all our efforts at imitation, and it is to this that we devote the energies of a lifetime; it is this that makes one orator surpass his rivals, this that makes one style of speaking preferable to another.
2250	Neque enim Asiani aut quocunque alio genere corrupti res non viderunt aut eas non collocaverunt neque , quos aridos vocamus , stulti aut in causis caeci fuerunt ; sed his iudicium in eloquendo ac modus , illis vires defuerunt , ut appareat in hoc et vitium et virtutem esse dicendi .	The failure of the orators of the Asiatic and other decadent schools did not lie in their inability to grasp or arrange the facts on which they had to speak, nor, on the other hand, were those who professed what we call the dry style of oratory either fools or incapable of understanding the cases in which they were engaged. No, the fault of the former was that they lacked taste and restraint in speaking, while the latter lacked power, whence it is clear that it is here that the real faults and virtues of oratory are to be found.
2251	Non ideo tamen sola est agenda cura verborum . Occurram enim necesse est et , velut in vestibulo protinus apprehensuris hanc confessionem meam , resistam iis qui , omissa rerum ( qui nervi sunt in causis ) diligentia , quodam inani circa voces studio senescunt , idque faciunt gratia decoris , qui est in dicendo mea quidem opinione pulcherrimus , sed cum sequitur non cum adfectatur .	This does not, however, mean that we should devote ourselves to the study of words alone. For I am compelled to offer the most prompt and determined resistance to those who would at the very portals of this enquiry lay hold of the admissions I have just made and, disregarding the subject matter which, after all, is the backbone of any speech, devote themselves to the futile and crippling study of words in a vain desire to acquire the gift of elegance, a gift which I myself regard as the fairest of all the glories of oratory, but only when it is natural and unaffected.
2252	Corpora sana et integri sanguinis et exercitatione firmata ex iisdem his speciem accipiunt ex quibus vires , namque et colorata et adstricta et lacertis expressa sunt ; at eadem si quis volsa atque fucata muliebriter comat , foedissima sint ipso formae labore .	Healthy bodies, enjoying a good circulation and strengthened by exercise, acquire grace from the same source that gives them strength, for they have a healthy complexion, firm flesh and shapely thews. But, on the other hand, the man who attempts to enhance these physical graces by the effeminate use of depilatories and cosmetics, succeeds merely in defacing them by the very care which he bestows on them.
2253	Et cultus concessus atque magnificus addit hominibus , ut Graeco versu testatum est , auctoritatem ; at muliebris et luxuriosus non corpus exornat , sed detegit mentem . Similiter illa translucida et versicolor quorundam elocutio res ipsas effeminat , quae illo verborum habitu vestiantur . Curam ergo verborum , rerum volo esse sollicitudinem .	Again, a tasteful and magnificent dress, as the Greek poet tells us, lends added dignity to its wearer: but effeminate and luxurious apparel fails to adorn the body and merely reveals the foulness of the mind. Similarly, a translucent and iridescent style merely serves to emasculate the subject which it arrays with such pomp of words. Therefore I would have the orator, while careful in his choice of words, be even more concerned about his subject matter.
2254	Nam plerumque optima rebus cohaerent et cernuntur suo lumine ; at nos quaerimus illa , tanquam lateant semper seque subducant . Ita nunquam putamus circa id esse de quo dicendum est , sed ex aliis locis petimus et inventis vim adferimus .	For, as a rule, the best words are essentially suggested by the subject matter and are discovered by their own intrinsic light. But to-day we hunt for these words as though they were always hiding themselves and striving to elude our grasp. And thus we fail to realise that they are to be found in the subject of our speech, and seek them elsewhere, and, when we have found them, force them to suit their context.
2255	Maiore animo aggredienda eloquentia est , quae si toto corpore valet , ungues polire et capillum reponere non existimabit ad curam suam pertinere . Sed evenit plerumque ut in hac diligentia deterior etiam fiat oratio , primum ,	It is with a more virile spirit that we should pursue eloquence, who, if only her whole body be sound, will never think it her duty to polish her nails and tire her hair. The usual result of over-attention to the niceties of style is the deterioration of our eloquence.
2256	quia sunt optima minime arcessita et simplicibus atque ab ipsa veritate profectis similia . Nam illa , quae curam fatentur et ficta atque composita videri etiam volunt , nec gratiam consequuntur et fidem amittunt propter id quod sensus obumbrantur et velut laeto gramine sata strangulantur .	The main reason for this is that those words are best which are least far-fetched and give the impression of simplicity and reality. For those words which are obviously the result of careful search and even seem to parade their self-conscious art, fail to attain the grace at which they aim and lose all appearance of sincerity because they darken the sense and choke the good seed by their own luxuriant overgrowth.
2257	Nam et quod recte dici potest circumimus amore verborum et quod satis dictum est repetimus et quod uno verbo patet pluribus oneramus et pleraque significare melius putamus quam dicere . Quid quod nihil iam proprium placet , dum parum creditur disertum quod et alius dixisset ?	For in our passion for words we paraphrase what might be said in plain language, repeat what we have already said at sufficient length, pile up a number of words where one would suffice, and regard allusion as better than directness of speech. So, too, all directness of speech is at a discount, and we think no phrase eloquent that another could conceivably have used.
2258	A corruptissimo quoque poetarum figuras seu translationes mutuamur , tum demum ingeniosi scilicet , si ad intelligendos nos opus sit ingenio . Atqui satis aperte Cicero praeceperat , in dicendo vitium vel maximum esse a vulgari genere orationis atque a consuetudine communis sensus abhorrere .	We borrow figures and metaphors from the most decadent poets, and regard it as a real sign of genius that it should require a genius to understand our meaning. And yet Cicero long since laid down this rule in the clearest of language, that the worst fault in speaking is to adopt a style inconsistent with the idiom of ordinary speech and contrary to the common feeling of mankind.
2259	Sed ille est durus atque ineruditus ; nos melius , quibus sordet omne quod natura dictavit , qui non ornamenta quaerimus sed lenocinia , quasi vero sit ulla verborum nisi rei cohaerentium virtus ; quae ut propria sint et dilucida et ornata et apte collocentur , si tota vita laborandum est , omnis studiorum fructus amissus est .	But nowadays our rhetoricians regard Cicero as lacking both polish and learning; we are far superior, for we look upon everything that is dictated by nature as beneath our notice, and seek not for the true ornaments of speech, but for meretricious finery, as though there were any real virtue in words save in their power to represent facts. And if we have to spend all our life in the laborious effort to discover words which will at once be brilliant, appropriate and lucid, and to arrange them with exact precision, we lose all the fruit of our studies.
2260	Atqui plerosque videas haerentes circa singula et dum inveniunt et dum inventa ponderant ac dimetiuntur . Quod si idcirco fieret ut semper optimis uterentur , abominanda tamen haec infelicitas erat , quae et cursum dicendi refrenat et calorem cogitationis extinguit mora et diffidentia .	And yet we see the majority of modern speakers wasting their time over the discovery of single words and over the elaborate weighing and measurement of such words when once discovered. Even if the special aim of such a practice were always to secure the best words, such an ill-starred form of industry would be much to be deprecated, since it checks tile natural current of our speech and extinguishes the warmth of imagination by the delay and loss of self-confidence which it occasions.
2261	Miser enim et , ut sic dicam , pauper orator est qui nullum verbum aequo animo perdere potest . Sed ne perdet quidem , qui rationem loquendi primum cognoverit , tum lectione multa et idonea copiosam sibi verborum supellectilem compararit et huic adhibuerit artem collocandi , deinde haec omnia exercitatione plurima roborarit , ut semper in promptu sint et ante oculos .	For the orator who cannot endure to lose a single word is like a man plunged in griping poverty. On the other hand, if he will only first form a true conception of the principles of eloquence, accumulate a copious supply of words by wide and suitable reading, apply the art of arrangement to the words thus acquired, and finally, by continual exercise, develop strength to use his acquisitions so that every word is ready at hand and lies under his very eyes, he will never lose a single word.
2262	Namque ei qui id fecerit simul res cum suis nominibus occurrent . Sed opus est studio praecedente et acquisita facultate et quasi reposita . Namque ista quaerendi , iudicandi , comparandi anxietas , dum discimus , adhibenda est , non dum dicimus . Alioqui sicut , qui patrimonium non pararunt , sub diem quaerunt , ita in oratione , qui non satis laboravit .	For the man who follows these instructions will find that facts and words appropriate to their expression will present themselves spontaneously. But it must be remembered that a long course of preliminary study is necessary and that the requisite ability must not merely be acquired, but carefully stored for use; for the anxiety devoted to the search for words, to the exercise of the critical faculty and the power of comparison is in its place while we are learning, but not when we are speaking. Otherwise, the orator who has not given sufficient attention to preliminary study will be like a man who, having no fortune, lives from hand to mouth.
2263	Sin praeparata dicendi vis fuerit , erunt in officio , non ut requisita respondere , sed ut semper sensibus inhaerere videantur atque eos ut umbra corpus sequi .	If, on the other hand, the powers of speech have been carefully cultivated beforehand, words will yield us ready service, not merely turning up when we search for them, but dwelling in our thoughts and following them as the shadow follows the body.
2264	Sed in hac ipsa cura est aliquid satis . Nam cum Latina , significantia , ornata , cum apte sunt collocata , quid amplius laboremus ? Quibusdam tamen nullus est finis calumniandi se et cum singulis paene syllabis commoriendi , qui etiam , cum optima sunt reperta , quaerunt aliquid quod sit magis antiquum , remotum , inopinatum , nec intelligunt iacere sensus in oratione , in qua verba laudantur .	There are, however, limits even to this form of study; for when our words are good Latin, full of meaning, elegant and aptly arranged, why should we labour further? And yet there are some who are never weary of morbid self-criticism, who throw themselves into an agony of mind almost over separate syllables, and even when they have discovered the best words for their purpose look for some word that is older, less familiar, and less obvious, since they cannot bring themselves to realise that when a speech is praised for its words, it implies that its sense is inadequate.
2265	Sit igitur cura elocutionis quam maxima , dum sciamus tamen nihil verborum causa esse faciendun , cum verba ipsa rerum gratia sint reperta ; quorum ea sunt maxime probabilia , quae sensum animi nostri optime promunt atque in animis iudicum quod nos volumus efficiunt .	While, then, style calls for the utmost attention, we must always bear in mind that nothing should be done for the sake of words only, since words were invented merely to give expression to things: and those words are the most satisfactory which give the best expression to the thoughts of our mind and produce the effect which we desire upon the minds of the judges.
2266	Ea debent praestare sine dubio et admirabilem et iucundam orationem , verum admirabilem non sic , quomodo prodigia miramur , et iucundam non deformi voluptate sed cum laude ac dignitate coniuncta .	Such words will assuredly be productive of a style that will both give pleasure and awaken admiration; and the admiration will be of a kind far other than that which we bestow on portents, while the pleasure evoked by the charm will have nothing morbid about it, but will be praiseworthy and dignified.
2267	Igitur , quam Graeci φράσιν vocant , Latine dicimus elocutionem . Ea spectatur verbis aut singulis aut coniunctis . In singulis intuendum est ut sint Latina , perspicua , ornata , ad id quod efficere volumus accommodata , in coniunctis , ut emendata , ut collocata , ut figurata .	I. What the Greeks call φράσιν we in Latin call elocuio or style. Style is revealed both in individual words and in groups of words. As regards the former, we must see that they are Latin, clear, elegant and well-adapted to produce the desired effect. As regards the latter, they must be correct, aptly placed and adorned with suitable figures.
2268	Sed ea , quae de ratione Latine atque emendate loquendi fuerunt dicenda , in libro primo , cum de grammatice loqueremur , exsecuti sumus . Verum illic tantum ne vitiosa essent praecepimus ; hic non alienum est admonere ut sint quam minime peregrina et externa . Multos enim , quibus loquendi ratio non desit , invenias quos curiose potius loqui dixeris quam Latine , quomodo et illa Attica anus Theophrastum , hominem alioqui disertissimum , adnotata unius adfectatione verbi , hospitem dixit nec alio se id deprehendisse interrogata respondit , quam quod nimium Attice loqueretur .	I have already, in the portions of the first book dealing with the subject of grammar, said all that is necessary on the way to acquire idiomatic and correct speech. But there my remarks were restricted to the prevention of positive faults, and it is well that I should now point out that our words should have nothing provincial or foreign about them. For you will find that there are a number of writers by no means deficient in style whose language is precious rather than idiomatic. As an illustration of my meaning I would remind you of the story of the old woman at Athens, who, when Theophrastus, a man of no mean eloquence, used one solitary word in an affected way, immediately said that he was a foreigner, and on being asked how she detected it, replied that his language was too Attic for Athens. Again Asinius Pollio held that Livy,
2269	Et in Tito Livio , mirae facundiae viro , putat inesse Pollio Asinius quandam Patavinitatem . Quare , si fieri potest et verba omnia et vox huius aluminum urbis oleant , ut oratio Romana plane videatur , non civitate donata .	for all his astounding eloquence, showed traces of the idiom of Padua. Therefore, if possible, our voice and all our words should be such as to reveal the native of this city, so that our speech may seem to be of genuine Roman origin, and not merely to have been presented with Roman citizenship.
2270	Perspicuitas in verbis praecipuam habet proprietatem , sed proprietas ipsa non simpliciter accipitur . Primus enim intellectus est sua cuiusque rei appellatio , qua non semper utemur ; nam et obscena vitabimus et sordida et humilia .	Clearness results above all from propriety in the use of words. But propriety is capable of more than one interpretation. In its primary sense it means calling things by their right names, and is consequently sometimes to be avoided, for our language must not be obscene, unseemly or mean.
2271	Sunt autem humilia infra dignitatem rerum aut ordinis . In quo vitio cavendo non mediocriter errare quidam solent , qui omnia quae sunt in usu , etiamsi causae necessitas postulet , reformidant ; ut ille , qui in actione Hibericas herbas , se solo nequiquam intelligente , dicebat , nisi irridens hanc vanitatem Cassius Severus spartum dicere eum velle indicasset .	Language may be described as mean when it is beneath the dignity of the subject or the rank of the speaker. Some orators fall into serious error in their eagerness to avoid this fault, and are afraid of all words that are in ordinary use, even although they may be absolutely necessary for their purpose. There was, for example, the man who in the course of a speech spoke of "Iberian grass," a meaningless phrase intelligible only to himself. Cassius Severus, however, by way of deriding his affectation, explained that he meant Spanish broom.
2272	Nec video quare clarus orator duratos muria pisces nitidius esse crediderit quam ipsum id quod vitabat . In hac autem proprietatis specie , quae nominibus ipsis cuiusque rei utitur , nulla virtus est , at quod ei contrarium est , vitium . Id apud nos improprium , ἄκυρον apud Graecos vocatur , quale est ,	Nor do I see why a certain distinguished orator thought " fishes conserved in brine " a more elegant phrase than the word which he avoided. But while there is no special merit in the form of propriety which consists in calling things by their real names, it is a fault to fly to the opposite extreme. This fault we call impropriety,
2273	tantum sperare dolorem , aut , quod in oratione Dolabellae emendatum a Cicerone adnotavi , mortem ferre , aut , qualia nunc laudantur a quibusdam , quorum est , de cruce verba ceciderunt . Non tamen quidquid non erit proprium , protinus et improprii vitio laborabit , quia primum omnium multa sunt et Graece et Latine non denominata .	while the Greeks call it ἄκυρον As examples I may cite the Virgilian, "Never could I have hoped for such great woe," or the phrase, which I noted had been corrected by Cicero in a speech of Dolabella's, "To bring death," or again, phrases of a kind that win praise from some of our contemporaries, such as, "His words fell from the cross." On the other hand, everything that lacks appropriateness will not necessarily suffer from the fault of positive impropriety, because there are, in the first place, many things which have no proper term either in Greek or Latin.
2274	Nam et , qui iaculum emittit , iaculari dicitur , qui pilam aut sudem , appellatione privatim sibi adsignata caret ; et ut , lapidare quid sit , manifestum est , ita glebarum testarumque iactus non habet nomen .	For example, the verb iaculari is specially used in the sense of "to throw a javelin," whereas there is no special verb appropriated to the throwing of a ball or a stake. So, too, while lapidare has the obvious meaning of "to stone," there is no special word to describe the throwing of clods or potsherds.
2275	Unde abusio , quae κατάχρησις dicitur , necessaria . Translatio quoque , in qua vel maximus est orationis ornatus , verba non suis rebus accommodat . Quare proprietas non ad nomen , sed ad vim significandi refertur nec auditu , sed intellectu perpendenda est .	Hence abuse or catachresis of words becomes necessary, while metaphor, also, which is the supreme ornament of oratory, applies words to things with which they have strictly no connexion. Consequently propriety turns not on the actual term, but on the meaning of the term, and must be tested by the touchstone of the understanding, not of the ear.
2276	Secundo modo dicitur proprium inter plura , quae sunt eiusdem nominis , id unde cetera ducta sunt ; ut vertex est contorta in se aqua vel quidquid aliud similiter vertitur , inde propter flexum capillorum pars summa capitis , ex hoc id quod in montibus eminentissimum . Recte dixeris haec omnia vertices , proprie tamen unde initium est .	The second sense in which the word propriety is used occurs when there are a number of things all called by the same name: in this case the original term from which the others are derived is styled the proper term. For example, the word vertex means a whirl of water, or of anything else that is whirled in a like manner: then, owing to the fashion of coiling the hair, it comes to mean the top of the head, while finally, from this sense it derives the meaning of the highest point of a mountain. All these things may correctly be called vertices, but the proper use of the term is the first. So, too, solea and tuidus
2277	Sic soleae et turdi pisces et cetera . Tertius est huic diversus modus , cum res communis pluribus in uno aliquo habet nomen eximium , ut carmen funebre proprie nenia et tabernaculum ducis augurale . Item , quod commune et aliis nomen intellectu alicui rei peculiariter tribuitur , ut urbem Romam accipimus et venales novicios et Corinthia aera , cum sint urbes aliae quoque et venalia multa et tam aurum et argentum quam aes Corinthium . Sed ne in his quidem virtus oratoris inspicitur .	are employed as names of fish, to mention no other cases. The third kind of propriety is found in the case where a thing which serves a number of purposes has a special name in some one particular context; for example, the proper term for a funeral song is naenia, and for the general's tent augurale. Again, a term which is common to a number of things may be applied in a proper or special sense to some one of them. Thus we use urbs in the special sense of Rome, venales in the special sense of newly-purchased slaves, and Corinthia in the special sense of bronzes, although there are other cities besides Rome, and many other things which may be styled venales besides slaves, and gold and silver are found at Corinth as well as bronze. But the use of such terms implies no special excellence in an orator.
2278	At illud iam non mediocriter probandum , quod hoc etiam laudari modo solet , ut proprie dictum , id est , quo nihil inveniri possit significantius : ut Cato dixit , C . Caesarem ad evertendam rem publicam sobrium accessisse ; ut Virgilius deductum carmen , et Horatius acrem tibiam Hannibalemque dirum .	There is, however, a form of propriety of speech which deserves the highest praise, that is to say, the employment of words with the maximum of significance, as, for instance, when Cato said that "Caesar was thoroughly sober when he undertook the task of overthrowing the constitution," or as Virgil spoke of a "thin-drawn strain," and Horace of the "shrill pipe," and "dread Hannibal."
2279	In quo modo illud quoque est a quibusdam traditum proprii genus ex appositis ( epitheta dicuntur ) : ut dulcis musti et cum dentibus albis . De quo genere alio loco dicendum est .	Some also include under this head that form of propriety which is derived from characteristic epithets, such as in the Virgilian phrases, "sweet unfermented wine," or "with white teeth." But of this sort of propriety I shall have to speak elsewhere.
2280	Etiam quae bene translata sunt propria dici solent . Interim autem quae sunt in quoque praecipua proprii locum accipiunt , ut Fabius inter plures imperatorias virtutes Cunctator est appellatus . Possunt videri verba , quae plus significant quam eloquuntur , in parte ponenda perspicuitatis ; intellectum enim adiuvant . Ego tamen libentius emphasim retulerim ad ornatum orationis , quia non ut intelligatur efficit , sed ut plus intelligatur .	Propriety is also made to include the appropriate use of words in metaphor, while at times the salient characteristic of an individual comes to be attached to him as a proper name: thus Fabius was called "Cunctator," the Delayer, on account of the most remarkable of his many military virtues. Some, perhaps, may think that words which mean more than they actually say deserve mention in connexion with clearness, since they assist the understanding. I, however, prefer to place emphasis among the ornaments of oratory, since it does not make a thing intelligible, but merely more intelligible.