The Life of Cnaeus Julius Agricola (Cornelius Tacitus)

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	The Life of Cnaeus Julius Agricola Author: Cornelius Tacitus	Translator: Alfred John Church
23	Quarta aestas obtinendis quae percucurrerat insumpta ; ac si virtus exercituum et Romani nominis gloria pateretur , inventus in ipsa Britannia terminus . namque Clota et Bodotria diversi maris aestibus per inmensum revectae , angusto terrarum spatio dirimuntur : quod tum praesidiis firmabatur atque omnis propior sinus tenebatur , summotis velut in aliam insulam hostibus .	The fourth summer he employed in securing what he had overrun. Had the valour of our armies and the renown of the Roman name permitted it, a limit to our conquests might have been found in Britain itself. Clota and Bodotria, estuaries which the tides of two opposite seas carry far back into the country, are separated by but a narrow strip of land This Agricola then began to defend with a line of forts, and, as all the country to the south was now occupied, the enemy were pushed into what might be called another island.
24	Quinto expeditionum anno nave prima transgressus ignotas ad id tempus gentis crebris simul ac prosperis proeliis domuit ; eamque partem Britanniae quae Hiberniam aspicit copiis instruxit , in spem magis quam ob formidinem , si quidem Hibernia medio inter Britanniam atque Hispaniam sita et Gallico quoque mari opportuna valentissimam imperii partem magnis in vicem usibus miscuerit . spatium eius , si Britanniae comparetur , angustius nostri maris insulas superat . solum caelumque et ingenia cultusque hominum haud multum a Britannia differunt ; melius aditus portusque per commercia et negotiatores cogniti . Agricola expulsum seditione domestica unum ex regulis gentis exceperat ac specie amicitiae in occasionem retinebat . saepe ex eo audivi legione una et modicis auxiliis debellari obtinerique Hiberniam posse ; idque etiam adversus Britanniam profuturum , si Romana ubique arma et velut e conspectu libertas tolleretur .	In the fifth year of the war Agricola, himself in the leading ship, crossed the Clota, and subdued in a series of victories tribes hitherto unknown. In that part of Britain which looks towards Ireland, he posted some troops, hoping for fresh conquests rather than fearing attack, inasmuch as Ireland, being between Britain and Spain and conveniently situated for the seas round Gaul, might have been the means of connecting with great mutual benefit the most powerful parts of the empire. Its extent is small when compared with Britain, but exceeds the islands of our seas. In soil and climate, in the disposition, temper, and habits of its population, it differs but little from Britain. We know most of its harbours and approaches, and that through the intercourse of commerce. One of the petty kings of the nation, driven out by internal faction, had been received by Agricola, who detained him under the semblance of friendship till he could make use of him. I have often heard him say that a single legion with a few auxiliaries could conquer and occupy Ireland, and that it would have a salutary effect on Britain for the Roman arms to be seen everywhere, and for freedom, so to speak, to be banished from its sight.
25	Ceterum aestate , qua sextum officii annum incohabat , amplexus civitates trans Bodotriam sitas , quia motus universarum ultra gentium et infesta hostilis exercitus itinera timebantur , portus classe exploravit ; quae ab Agricola primum adsumpta in partem virium sequebatur egregia specie , cum simul terra , simul mari bellum impelleretur , ac saepe isdem castris pedes equesque et nauticus miles mixti copiis et laetitia sua quisque facta , suos casus attollerent , ac modo silvarum ac montium profunda , modo tempestatum ac fluctuum adversa , hinc terra et hostis , hinc victus Oceanus militari iactantia compararentur . Britannos quoque , ut ex captivis audiebatur , visa classis obstupefaciebat , tamquam aperto maris sui secreto ultimum victis perfugium clauderetur . ad manus et arma conversi Caledoniam incolentes populi magno paratu , maiore fama , uti mos est de ignotis , oppugnare ultro castellum adorti , metum ut provocantes addiderant ; regrediendumque citra Bodotriam et cedendum potius quam pellerentur ignavi specie prudentium admonebant , cum interim cognoscit hostis pluribus agminibus inrupturos . ac ne superante numero et peritia locorum circumiretur , diviso et ipse in tris partes exercitu incessit .	In the summer in which he entered on the sixth year of his office, his operations embraced the states beyond Bodotria, and, as he dreaded a general movement among the remoter tribes, as well as the perils which would beset an invading army, he explored the harbours with a fleet, which, at first employed by him as an integral part of his force, continued to accompany him. The spectacle of war thus pushed on at once by sea and land was imposing; while often infantry, cavalry, and marines, mingled in the same encampment and joyously sharing the same meals, would dwell on their own achievements and adventures, comparing, with a soldier's boastfulness, at one time the deep recesses of the forest and the mountain with the dangers of waves and storms, or, at another, battles by land with victories over the ocean. The Britons too, as we learnt from the prisoners, were confounded by the sight of a fleet, as if, now that their inmost seas were penetrated, the conquered had their last refuge closed against them. The tribes inhabiting Caledonia flew to arms, and with great preparations, made greater by the rumours which always exaggerate the unknown, themselves advanced to attack our fortresses, and thus challenging a conflict, inspired us with alarm. To retreat south of the Bodotria, and to retire rather than to be driven out, was the advice of timid pretenders to prudence, when Agricola learnt that the enemy's attack would be made with more than one army. Fearing that their superior numbers and their knowledge of the country might enable them to hem him in, he too distributed his forces into three divisions, and so advanced.
26	Quod ubi cognitum hosti , mutato repente consilio universi nonam legionem ut maxime invalidam nocte adgressi , inter somnum ac trepidationem caesis vigilibus inrupere . iamque in ipsis castris pugnabatur , cum Agricola iter hostium ab exploratoribus edoctus et vestigiis insecutus , velocissimos equitum peditumque adsultare tergis pugnantium iubet , mox ab universis adici clamorem ; et propinqua luce fulsere signa . ita ancipiti malo territi Britanni ; et nonanis rediit animus , ac securi pro salute de gloria certabant . ultro quin etiam erupere , et fuit atrox in ipsis portarum angustiis proelium , donec pulsi hostes , utroque exercitu certante , his , ut tulisse opem , illis , ne eguisse auxilio viderentur . quod nisi paludes et silvae fugientis texissent , debellatum illa victoria foret .	This becoming known to the enemy, they suddenly changed their plan, and with their whole force attacked by night the ninth Legion, as being the weakest, and cutting down the sentries, who were asleep or panic-stricken, they broke into the camp. And now the battle was raging within the camp itself, when Agricola, who had learnt from his scouts the enemy's line of march and had kept close on his track, ordered the most active soldiers of his cavalry and infantry to attack the rear of the assailants, while the entire army were shortly to raise a shout. Soon his standards glittered in the light of daybreak. A double peril thus alarmed the Britons, while the courage of the Romans revived; and feeling sure of safety, they now fought for glory. In their turn they rushed to the attack, and there was a furious conflict within the narrow passages of the gates till the enemy were routed. Both armies did their utmost, the one for the honour of having given aid, the other for that of not having needed support. Had not the flying enemy been sheltered by morasses and forests, this victory would have ended the war.
27	Cuius conscientia ac fama ferox exercitus nihil virtuti suae invium et penetrandam Caledoniam inveniendumque tandem Britanniae terminum continuo proeliorum cursu fremebant . atque illi modo cauti ac sapientes prompti post eventum ac magniloqui erant . iniquissima haec bellorum condicio est : prospera omnes sibi vindicant , adversa uni imputantur . at Britanni non virtute se victos , sed occasione et arte ducis rati , nihil ex adrogantia remittere , quo minus iuventutem armarent , coniuges ac liberos in loca tuta transferrent , coetibus et sacrificiis conspirationem civitatum sancirent . atque ita inritatis utrimque animis discessum .	Knowing this, and elated by their glory, our army exclaimed that nothing could resist their valour—that they must penetrate the recesses of Caledonia, and at length after an unbroken succession of battles, discover the furthest limits of Britain. Those who but now were cautious and prudent, became after the event eager and boastful. It is the singularly unfair peculiarity of war that the credit of success is claimed by all, while a disaster is attributed to one alone. But the Britons thinking themselves baffled, not so much by our valour as by our general's skilful use of an opportunity, abated nothing of their arrogant demeanour, arming their youth, removing their wives and children to a place of safety, and assembling together to ratify, with sacred rites, a confederacy of all their states. Thus, with angry feelings on both sides, the combatants parted.
28	Eadem aestate cohors Usiporum per Germanias conscripta et in Britanniam transmissa magnum ac memorabile facinus ausa est . occiso centurione ac militibus , qui ad tradendam disciplinam inmixti manipulis exemplum et rectores habebantur , tris liburnicas adactis per vim gubernatoribus ascendere ; et uno remigante , suspectis duobus eoque interfectis , nondum vulgato rumore ut miraculum praevehebantur . mox ubi ad aquam raptum issent , cum plerisque Britannorum sua defensantium proelio congressi ac saepe victores , aliquando pulsi , eo ad extremum inopiae venere , ut infirmissimos suorum , mox sorte ductos vescerentur . atque ita circumvecti Britanniam , amissis per inscitiam regendi navibus , pro praedonibus habiti , primum a Suebis , mox a Frisiis intercepti sunt . ac fuere quos per commercia venumdatos et in nostram usque ripam mutatione ementium adductos indicium tanti casus inlustravit .	The same summer a Usipian cohort, which had been levied in Germany and transported into Britain, ventured on a great and memorable exploit. Having killed a centurion and some soldiers, who, to impart military discipline, had been incorporated with their ranks and were employed at once to instruct and command them, they embarked on board three swift galleys with pilots pressed into their service. Under the direction of one of them—for two of the three they suspected and consequently put to death—they sailed past the coast in the strangest way before any rumour about them was in circulation. After a while, dispersing in search of water and provisions, they encountered many of the Britons, who sought to defend their property. Often victorious though now and then beaten, they were at last reduced to such an extremity of want as to be compelled to eat, at first, the feeblest of their number, and then victims selected by lot. Having sailed round Britain and lost their vessels from not knowing how to manage them, they were looked upon as pirates and were intercepted, first by the Suevi and then by the Frisii. Some who were sold as slaves in the way of trade, and were brought through the process of barter as far as our side of the Rhine, gained notoriety by the disclosure of this extraordinary adventure.
29	Initio aestatis Agricola domestico vulnere ictus , anno ante natum filium amisit . quem casum neque ut plerique fortium virorum ambitiose , neque per lamenta rursus ac maerorem muliebriter tulit ; et in luctu bellum inter remedia erat . igitur praemissa classe , quae pluribus locis praedata magnum et incertum terrorem faceret , expedito exercitu , cui ex Britannis fortissimos et longa pace exploratos addiderat , ad montem Graupium pervenit , quem iam hostis insederat . nam Britanni nihil fracti pugnae prioris eventu et ultionem aut servitium expectantes , tandemque docti commune periculum concordia propulsandum , legationibus et foederibus omnium civitatium vires exciverant . iamque super triginta milia armatorum aspiciebantur , et adhuc adfluebat omnis iuventus et quibus cruda ac viridis senectus , clari bello et sua quisque decora gestantes , cum inter pluris duces virtute et genere praestans nomine Calgacus apud contractam multitudinem proelium poscentem in hunc modum locutus fertur :	Early in the summer Agricola sustained a domestic affliction in the loss of a son born a year before, a calamity which he endured, neither with the ostentatious fortitude displayed by many brave men, nor, on the other hand, with womanish tears and grief. In his sorrow he found one source of relief in war. Having sent on a fleet, which by its ravages at various points might cause a vague and wide-spread alarm, he advanced with a lightly equipped force, including in its ranks some Britons of remarkable bravery, whose fidelity had been tried through years of peace, as far as the Grampian mountains, which the enemy had already occupied. For the Britons, indeed, in no way cowed by the result of the late engagement, had made up their minds to be either avenged or enslaved, and convinced at length that a common danger must be averted by union, had, by embassies and treaties, summoned forth the whole strength of all their states. More than 30,000 armed men were now to be seen, and still there were pressing in all the youth of the country, with all whose old age was yet hale and vigorous, men renowned in war and bearing each decorations of his own. Meanwhile, among the many leaders, one superior to the rest in valour and in birth, Galgacus by name, is said to have thus harangued the multitude gathered around him and clamouring for battle:—
30	' Quotiens causas belli et necessitatem nostram intueor , magnus mihi animus est hodiernum diem consensumque vestrum initium libertatis toti Britanniae fore : nam et universi coistis et servitutis expertes , et nullae ultra terrae ac ne mare quidem securum inminente nobis classe Romana . ita proelium atque arma , quae fortibus honesta , eadem etiam ignavis tutissima sunt . priores pugnae , quibus adversus Romanos varia fortuna certatum est , spem ac subsidium in nostris manibus habebant , quia nobilissimi totius Britanniae eoque in ipsis penetralibus siti nec ulla servientium litora aspicientes , oculos quoque a contactu dominationis inviolatos habebamus . nos terrarum ac libertatis extremos recessus ipse ac sinus famae in hunc diem defendit : nunc terminus Britanniae patet , atque omne ignotum pro magnifico est ; sed nulla iam ultra gens , nihil nisi fluctus ac saxa , et infestiores Romani , quorum superbiam frustra per obsequium ac modestiam effugias . raptores orbis , postquam cuncta vastantibus defuere terrae , mare scrutantur : si locuples hostis est , avari , si pauper , ambitiosi , quos non Oriens , non Occidens satiaverit : soli omnium opes atque inopiam pari adfectu concupiscunt . auferre trucidare rapere falsis nominibus imperium , atque ubi solitudinem faciunt , pacem appellant .	"Whenever I consider the origin of this war and the necessities of our position, I have a sure confidence that this day, and this union of yours, will be the beginning of freedom to the whole of Britain. To all of us slavery is a thing unknown; there are no lands beyond us, and even the sea is not safe, menaced as we are by a Roman fleet. And thus in war and battle, in which the brave find glory, even the coward will find safety. Former contests, in which, with varying fortune, the Romans were resisted, still left in us a last hope of succour, inasmuch as being the most renowned nation of Britain, dwelling in the very heart of the country, and out of sight of the shores of the conquered, we could keep even our eyes unpolluted by the contagion of slavery. To us who dwell on the uttermost confines of the earth and of freedom, this remote sanctuary of Britain's glory has up to this time been a defence. Now, however, the furthest limits of Britain are thrown open, and the unknown always passes for the marvellous. But there are no tribes beyond us, nothing indeed but waves and rocks, and the yet more terrible Romans, from whose oppression escape is vainly sought by obedience and submission. Robbers of the world, having by their universal plunder exhausted the land, they rifle the deep. If the enemy be rich, they are rapacious; if he be poor, they lust for dominion; neither the east nor the west has been able to satisfy them. Alone among men they covet with equal eagerness poverty and riches. To robbery, slaughter, plunder, they give the lying name of empire; they make a solitude and call it peace.
31	' Liberos cuique ac propinquos suos natura carissimos esse voluit : hi per dilectus alibi servituri auferuntur ; coniuges sororesque etiam si hostilem libidinem effugerunt , nomine amicorum atque hospitum polluuntur . bona fortunaeque in tributum , ager atque annus in frumentum , corpora ipsa ac manus silvis ac paludibus emuniendis inter verbera et contumelias conteruntur . nata servituti mancipia semel veneunt , atque ultro a dominis aluntur : Britannia servitutem suam cotidie emit , cotidie pascit . ac sicut in familia recentissimus quisque servorum etiam conservis ludibrio est , sic in hoc orbis terrarum vetere famulatu novi nos et viles in excidium petimur ; neque enim arva nobis aut metalla aut portus sunt , quibus exercendis reservemur . virtus porro ac ferocia subiectorum ingrata imperantibus ; et longinquitas ac secretum ipsum quo tutius , eo suspectius . ita sublata spe veniae tandem sumite animum , tam quibus salus quam quibus gloria carissima est . Brigantes femina duce exurere coloniam , expugnare castra , ac nisi felicitas in socordiam vertisset , exuere iugum potuere : nos integri et indomiti et in libertatem , non in paenitentiam bellaturi ; primo statim congressu ostendamus , quos sibi Caledonia viros seposuerit .	"Nature has willed that every man's children and kindred should be his dearest objects. Yet these are torn from us by conscriptions to be slaves elsewhere. Our wives and our sisters, even though they may escape violation from the enemy, are dishonoured under the names of friendship and hospitality. Our goods and fortunes they collect for their tribute, our harvests for their granaries. Our very hands and bodies, under the lash and in the midst of insult, are worn down by the toil of clearing forests and morasses. Creatures born to slavery are sold once for all, and are, moreover, fed by their masters; but Britain is daily purchasing, is daily feeding, her own enslaved people. And as in a household the last comer among the slaves is always the butt of his companions, so we in a world long used to slavery, as the newest and the most contemptible, are marked out for destruction. We have neither fruitful plains, nor mines, nor harbours, for the working of which we may be spared. Valour, too, and high spirit in subjects, are offensive to rulers; besides, remoteness and seclusion, while they give safety, provoke suspicion. Since then you cannot hope for quarter, take courage, I beseech you, whether it be safety or renown that you hold most precious. Under a woman's leadership the Brigantes were able to burn a colony, to storm a camp, and had not success ended in supineness, might have thrown off the yoke. Let us, then, a fresh and unconquered people, never likely to abuse our freedom, show forthwith at the very first onset what heroes Caledonia has in reserve.
32	' An eandem Romanis in bello virtutem quam in pace lasciviam adesse creditis ? nostris illi dissensionibus ac discordiis clari vitia hostium in gloriam exercitus sui vertunt ; quem contractum ex diversissimis gentibus ut secundae res tenent , ita adversae dissolvent : nisi si Gallos et Germanos et ( pudet dictu ) Britannorum plerosque , licet dominationi alienae sanguinem commodent , diutius tamen hostis quam servos , fide et adfectu teneri putatis . metus ac terror sunt infirma vincla caritatis ; quae ubi removeris , qui timere desierint , odisse incipient . omnia victoriae incitamenta pro nobis sunt : nullae Romanos coniuges accendunt , nulli parentes fugam exprobraturi sunt ; aut nulla plerisque patria aut alia est . paucos numero , trepidos ignorantia , caelum ipsum ac mare et silvas , ignota omnia circumspectantis , clausos quodam modo ac vinctos di nobis tradiderunt . ne terreat vanus aspectus et auri fulgor atque argenti , quod neque tegit neque vulnerat . in ipsa hostium acie inveniemus nostras manus : adgnoscent Britanni suam causam , recordabuntur Galli priorem libertatem , tam deserent illos ceteri Germani quam nuper Usipi reliquerunt . nec quicquam ultra formidinis : vacua castella , senum coloniae , inter male parentis et iniuste imperantis aegra municipia et discordantia . hic dux , hic exercitus : ibi tributa et metalla et ceterae servientium poenae , quas in aeternum perferre aut statim ulcisci in hoc campo est . proinde ituri in aciem et maiores vestros et posteros cogitate .'	"Do you suppose that the Romans will be as brave in war as they are licentious in peace? To our strifes and discords they owe their fame, and they turn the errors of an enemy to the renown of their own army, an army which, composed as it is of every variety of nations, is held together by success and will be broken up by disaster. These Gauls and Germans, and, I blush to say, these numerous Britons, who, though they lend their lives to support a stranger's rule, have been its enemies longer than its subjects, you cannot imagine to be bound by fidelity and affection. Fear and terror there certainly are, feeble bonds of attachment; remove them, and those who have ceased to fear will begin to hate. All the incentives to victory are on our side. The Romans have no wives to kindle their courage; no parents to taunt them with flight; many have either no country or one far away. Few in number, dismayed by their ignorance, looking around upon a sky, a sea, and forests which are all unfamiliar to them; hemmed in, as it were, and enmeshed, the Gods have delivered them into our hands. Be not frightened by idle display, by the glitter of gold and of silver, which can neither protect nor wound. In the very ranks of the enemy we shall find our own forces. Britons will acknowledge their own cause; Gauls will remember past freedom; the other Germans will abandon them, as but lately did the Usipii. Behind them there is nothing to dread. The forts are ungarrisoned; the colonies in the hands of aged men; what with disloyal subjects and oppressive rulers, the towns are ill-affected and rife with discord. On the one side you have a general and an army; on the other, tribute, the mines, and all the other penalties of an enslaved people. Whether you endure these for ever, or instantly avenge them, this field is to decide. Think, therefore, as you advance to battle, at once of your ancestors and of your posterity."
33	Excepere orationem alacres , ut barbaris moris , fremitu cantuque et clamoribus dissonis . iamque agmina et armorum fulgores audentissimi cuiusque procursu ; simul instruebatur acies , cum Agricola quamquam laetum et vix munimentis coe + rcitum militem accendendum adhuc ratus , ita disseruit : ' septimus annus est , commilitones , ex quo virtute et auspiciis imperii Romani , fide atque opera vestra Britanniam vicistis . tot expeditionibus , tot proeliis , seu fortitudine adversus hostis seu patientia ac labore paene adversus ipsam rerum naturam opus fuit , neque me militum neque vos ducis paenituit . ergo egressi , ego veterum legatorum , vos priorum exercituum terminos , finem Britanniae non fama nec rumore , sed castris et armis tenemus : inventa Britannia et subacta . equidem saepe in agmine , cum vos paludes montesve et flumina fatigarent , fortissimi cuiusque voces audiebam : \''' quando dabitur hostis , quando in manus veniet ?\''' veniunt , e latebris suis extrusi , et vota virtusque in aperto , omniaque prona victoribus atque eadem victis adversa . nam ut superasse tantum itineris , evasisse silvas , transisse aestuaria pulchrum ac decorum in frontem , ita fugientibus periculosissima quae hodie prosperrima sunt ; neque enim nobis aut locorum eadem notitia aut commeatuum eadem abundantia , sed manus et arma et in his omnia . quod ad me attinet , iam pridem mihi decretum est neque exercitus neque ducis terga tuta esse . proinde et honesta mors turpi vita potior , et incolumitas ac decus eodem loco sita sunt ; nec inglorium fuerit in ipso terrarum ac naturae fine cecidisse .	They received his speech with enthusiasm, and as is usual among barbarians, with songs, shouts and discordant cries. And now was seen the assembling of troops and the gleam of arms, as the boldest warriors stepped to the front. As the line was forming, Agricola, who, though his troops were in high spirits and could scarcely be kept within the entrenchments, still thought it right to encourage them, spoke as follows— "Comrades, this is the eighth year since, thanks to the greatness and good fortune of Rome and to your own loyalty and energy, you conquered Britain. In our many campaigns and battles, whether courage in meeting the foe, or toil and endurance in struggling, I may say, against nature herself, have been needed, I have ever been well satisfied with my soldiers, and you with your commander. And so you and I have passed beyond the limits reached by former armies or by former governors, and we now occupy the last confines of Britain, not merely in rumour and report, but with an actual encampment and armed force. Britain has been both discovered and subdued. Often on the march, when morasses, mountains, and rivers were wearing out your strength, did I hear our bravest men exclaim, 'When shall we have the enemy before us?—when shall we fight?' He is now here, driven from his lair, and your wishes and your valour have free scope, and everything favours the conqueror, everything is adverse to the vanquished. For as it is a great and glorious achievement, if we press on, to have accomplished so great a march, to have traversed forests and to have crossed estuaries, so, if we retire, our present most complete success will prove our greatest danger. We have not the same knowledge of the country or the same abundance of supplies, but we have arms in our hands, and in them we have everything. For myself I have long been convinced that neither for an army nor for a general is retreat safe. Better, too, is an honourable death than a life of shame, and safety and renown are for us to be found together. And it would be no inglorious end to perish on the extreme confines of earth and of nature.