The Life of Cnaeus Julius Agricola (Cornelius Tacitus)

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	The Life of Cnaeus Julius Agricola Author: Cornelius Tacitus	Translator: Alfred John Church
12	In pedite robur ; quaedam nationes et curru proeliantur . honestior auriga , clientes propugnant . olim regibus parebant , nunc per principes factionibus et studiis trahuntur . nec aliud adversus validissimas gentis pro nobis utilius quam quod in commune non consulunt . rarus duabus tribusve civitatibus ad propulsandum commune periculum conventus : ita singuli pugnant , universi vincuntur . caelum crebris imbribus ac nebulis foedum ; asperitas frigorum abest . dierum spatia ultra nostri orbis mensuram ; nox clara et extrema Britanniae parte brevis , ut finem atque initium lucis exiguo discrimine internoscas . quod si nubes non officiant , aspici per noctem solis fulgorem , nec occidere et exurgere , sed transire adfirmant . scilicet extrema et plana terrarum humili umbra non erigunt tenebras , infraque caelum et sidera nox cadit . solum praeter oleam vitemque et cetera calidioribus terris oriri sueta patiens frugum pecudumque fecundum : tarde mitescunt , cito proveniunt ; eademque utriusque rei causa , multus umor terrarum caelique . fert Britannia aurum et argentum et alia metalla , pretium victoriae . gignit et Oceanus margarita , sed subfusca ac liventia . quidam artem abesse legentibus arbitrantur ; nam in rubro mari viva ac spirantia saxis avelli , in Britannia , prout expulsa sint , colligi : ego facilius crediderim naturam margaritis deesse quam nobis avaritiam .	Their strength is in infantry. Some tribes fight also with the chariot. The higher in rank is the charioteer; the dependants fight. They were once ruled by kings, but are now divided under chieftains into factions and parties. Our greatest advantage in coping with tribes so powerful is that they do not act in concert. Seldom is it that two or three states meet together to ward off a common danger. Thus, while they fight singly, all are conquered. Their sky is obscured by continual rain and cloud. Severity of cold is unknown. The days exceed in length those of our part of the world; the nights are bright, and in the extreme north so short that between sunlight and dawn you can perceive but a slight distinction. It is said that, if there are no clouds in the way, the splendour of the sun can be seen throughout the night, and that he does not rise and set, but only crosses the heavens. The truth is, that the low shadow thrown from the flat extremities of the earth's surface does not raise the darkness to any height, and the night thus fails to reach the sky and stars. With the exception of the olive and vine, and plants which usually grow in warmer climates, the soil will yield, and even abundantly, all ordinary produce. It ripens indeed slowly, but is of rapid growth, the cause in each case being the same, namely, the excessive moisture of the soil and of the atmosphere. Britain contains gold and silver and other metals, as the prize of conquest. The ocean, too, produces pearls, but of a dusky and bluish hue. Some think that those who collect them have not the requisite skill, as in the Red Sea the living and breathing pearl is torn from the rocks, while in Britain they are gathered just as they are thrown up. I could myself more readily believe that the natural properties of the pearls are in fault than our keenness for gain.
13	Ipsi Britanni dilectum ac tributa et iniuncta imperii munia impigre obeunt , si iniuriae absint : has aegre tolerant , iam domiti ut pareant , nondum ut serviant . igitur primus omnium Romanorum divus Iulius cum exercitu Britanniam ingressus , quamquam prospera pugna terruerit incolas ac litore potitus sit , potest videri ostendisse posteris , non tradidisse . mox bella civilia et in rem publicam versa principum arma , ac longa oblivio Britanniae etiam in pace : consilium id divus Augustus vocabat , Tiberius praeceptum . agitasse Gaium Caesarem de intranda Britannia satis constat , ni velox ingenio mobili paenitentiae , et ingentes adversus Germaniam conatus frustra fuissent . divus Claudius auctor iterati operis , transvectis legionibus auxiliisque et adsumpto in partem rerum Vespasiano , quod initium venturae mox fortunae fuit : domitae gentes , capti reges et monstratus fatis Vespasianus .	The Britons themselves bear cheerfully the conscrip- tion, the taxes, and the other burdens imposed on them by the Empire, if there be no oppression. Of this they are impatient; they are reduced to subjection, not as yet to slavery The deified Julius, the very first Roman who entered Britain with an army, though by a successful engagement he struck terror into the inhabitants and gained possession of the coast, must be regarded as having indicated rather than transmitted the acquisition to future generations. Then came the civil wars, and the arms of our leaders were turned against their country, and even when there was peace, there was a long neglect of Britain. This Augustus spoke of as policy, Tiberius as an inherited maxim. That Caius Cæsar meditated an invasion of Britain is perfectly clear, but his purposes, rapidly formed, were easily changed, and his vast attempts on Germany had failed. Claudius was the first to renew the attempt, and conveyed over into the island some legions and auxiliaries, choosing Vespasian to share with him the campaign, whose approaching elevation had this beginning. Several tribes were subdued and kings made prisoners, and destiny learnt to know its favourite.
14	Consularium primus Aulus Plautius praepositus ac subinde Ostorius Scapula , uterque bello egregius : redactaque paulatim in formam provinciae proxima pars Britanniae , addita insuper veteranorum colonia . quaedam civitates Cogidumno regi donatae ( is ad nostram usque memoriam fidissimus mansit ), vetere ac iam pridem recepta populi Romani consuetudine , ut haberet instrumenta servitutis et reges . mox Didius Gallus parta a prioribus continuit , paucis admodum castellis in ulteriora promotis , per quae fama aucti officii quaereretur . Didium Veranius excepit , isque intra annum extinctus est . Suetonius hinc Paulinus biennio prosperas res habuit , subactis nationibus firmatisque praesidiis ; quorum fiducia Monam insulam ut vires rebellibus ministrantem adgressus terga occasioni patefecit .	Aulus Plautius was the first governor of consular rank, and Ostorius Scapula the next. Both were famous soldiers, and by degrees the nearest portions of Britain were brought into the condition of a province, and a colony of veterans was also introduced. Some of the states were given to king Cogidumnus, who lived down to our day a most faithful ally. So was maintained the ancient and long-recognised practice of the Roman people, which seeks to secure among the instruments of dominion even kings themselves. Soon after, Didius Gallus consolidated the conquests of his predecessors, and advanced a very few positions into parts more remote, to gain the credit of having enlarged the sphere of government. Didius was succeeded by Veranius, who died within the year. Then Suetonius Paullinus enjoyed success for two years; he subdued several tribes and strengthened our military posts. Thus encouraged, he made an attempt on the island of Mona, as a place from which the rebels drew reinforcements; but in doing this he left his rear open to attack.
15	Namque absentia legati remoto metu Britanni agitare inter se mala servitutis , conferre iniurias et interpretando accendere : nihil profici patientia nisi ut graviora tamquam ex facili tolerantibus imperentur . singulos sibi olim reges fuisse , nunc binos imponi , e quibus legatus in sanguinem , procurator in bona saeviret . aeque discordiam praepositorum , aeque concordiam subiectis exitiosam . alterius manus centuriones , alterius servos vim et contumelias miscere . nihil iam cupiditati , nihil libidini exceptum . in proelio fortiorem esse qui spoliet : nunc ab ignavis plerumque et imbellibus eripi domos , abstrahi liberos , iniungi dilectus , tamquam mori tantum pro patria nescientibus . quantulum enim transisse militum , si sese Britanni numerent ? sic Germanias excussisse iugum : et flumine , non Oceano defendi . sibi patriam coniuges parentes , illis avaritiam et luxuriam causas belli esse . recessuros , ut divus Iulius recessisset , modo virtutem maiorum suorum aemularentur . neve proelii unius aut alterius eventu pavescerent : plus impetus felicibus , maiorem constantiam penes miseros esse . iam Britannorum etiam deos misereri , qui Romanum ducem absentem , qui relegatum in alia insula exercitum detinerent ; iam ipsos , quod difficillimum fuerit , deliberare . porro in eius modi consiliis periculosius esse deprehendi quam audere .	Relieved from apprehension by the legate's absence, the Britons dwelt much among themselves on the miseries of subjection, compared their wrongs, and exaggerated them in the discussion. "All we get by patience," they said, "is that heavier demands are exacted from us, as from men who will readily submit. A single king once ruled us; now two are set over us; a legate to tyrannise over our lives, a procurator to tyrannise over our property. Their quarrels and their harmony are alike ruinous to their subjects. The centurions of the one, the slaves of the other, combine violence with insult. Nothing is now safe from their avarice, nothing from their lust. In war it is the strong who plunders; now, it is for the most part by cowards and poltroons that our homes are rifled, our children torn from us, the conscription enforced, as though it were for our country alone that we could not die. For, after all, what a mere handful of soldiers has crossed over, if we Britons look at our own numbers. Germany did thus actually shake off the yoke, and yet its defence was a river, not the ocean. With us, fatherland, wives, parents, are the motives to war; with them, only greed and profligacy. They will surely fly, as did the now deified Julius, if once we emulate the valour of our sires. Let us not be panicstricken at the result of one or two engagements. The miserable have more fury and greater resolution. Now even the gods are beginning to pity us, for they are keeping away the Roman general, and detaining his army far from us in another island. We have already taken the hardest step; we are deliberating. And indeed, in all such designs, to dare is less perilous than to be detected."
16	His atque talibus in vicem instincti , Boudicca generis regii femina duce ( neque enim sexum in imperiis discernunt ) sumpsere universi bellum ; ac sparsos per castella milites consectati , expugnatis praesidiis ipsam coloniam invasere ut sedem servitutis , nec ullum in barbaris saevitiae genus omisit ira et victoria . quod nisi Paulinus cognito provinciae motu propere subvenisset , amissa Britannia foret ; quam unius proelii fortuna veteri patientiae restituit , tenentibus arma plerisque , quos conscientia defectionis et proprius ex legato timor agitabat , ne quamquam egregius cetera adroganter in deditos et ut suae cuiusque iniuriae ultor durius consuleret . missus igitur Petronius Turpilianus tamquam exorabilior et delictis hostium novus eoque paenitentiae mitior , compositis prioribus nihil ultra ausus Trebellio Maximo provinciam tradidit . Trebellius segnior et nullis castrorum experimentis , comitate quadam curandi provinciam tenuit . didicere iam barbari quoque ignoscere vitiis blandientibus , et interventus civilium armorum praebuit iustam segnitiae excusationem : sed discordia laboratum , cum adsuetus expeditionibus miles otio lasciviret . Trebellius , fuga ac latebris vitata exercitus ira , indecorus atque humilis precario mox praefuit , ac velut pacta exercitus licentia , ducis salute , seditio sine sanguine stetit . nec Vettius Bolanus , manentibus adhuc civilibus bellis , agitavit Britanniam disciplina : eadem inertia erga hostis , similis petulantia castrorum , nisi quod innocens Bolanus et nullis delictis invisus caritatem paraverat loco auctoritatis .	Rousing each other by this and like language, under the leadership of Boudicea, a woman of kingly descent (for they admit no distinction of sex in their royal successions), they all rose in arms. They fell upon our troops, which were scattered on garrison duty, stormed the forts, and burst into the colony itself, the head-quarters, as they thought, of tyranny. In their rage and their triumph, they spared no variety of a barbarian's cruelty. Had not Paullinus on hearing of the outbreak in the province rendered prompt succour, Britain would have been lost. By one successful engagement, he brought it back to its former obedience, though many, troubled by the conscious guilt of rebellion and by particular dread of the legate, still clung to their arms. Excellent as he was in other respects, his policy to the conquered was arrogant, and exhibited the cruelty of one who was avenging private wrongs. Accordingly Petronius Turpilianus was sent out to initiate a milder rule. A stranger to the enemy's misdeeds and so more accessible to their penitence, he put an end to old troubles, and, attempting nothing more, handed the province over to Trebellius Maximus. Trebellius, who was somewhat indolent, and never ventured on a campaign, controlled the province by a certain courtesy in his administration. Even the barbarians now learnt to excuse many attractive vices, and the occurrence of the civil war gave a good pretext for inaction. But we were sorely troubled with mutiny, as troops habituated to service grew demoralised by idleness. Trebellius, who had escaped the soldiers' fury by flying and hiding himself, governed henceforth on sufferance, a disgraced and humbled man. It was a kind of bargain; the soldiers had their licence, the general had his life; and so the mutiny cost no bloodshed. Nor did Vettius Bolanus, during the continuance of the civil wars, trouble Britain with discipline. There was the same inaction with respect to the enemy, and similar unruliness in the camp, only Bolanus, an upright man, whom no misdeeds made odious, had secured affection in default of the power of control.
17	Sed ubi cum cetero orbe Vespasianus et Britanniam recuperavit , magni duces , egregii exercitus , minuta hostium spes . et terrorem statim intulit Petilius Cerialis , Brigantum civitatem , quae numerosissima provinciae totius perhibetur , adgressus . multa proelia , et aliquando non incruenta ; magnamque Brigantum partem aut victoria amplexus est aut bello . et Cerialis quidem alterius successoris curam famamque obruisset : subiit sustinuitque molem Iulius Frontinus , vir magnus , quantum licebat , validamque et pugnacem Silurum gentem armis subegit , super virtutem hostium locorum quoque difficultates eluctatus .	When however Vespasian had restored to unity Britain as well as the rest of the world, in the presence of great generals and renowned armies the enemy's hopes were crushed. They were at once panic-stricken by the attack of Petilius Cerialis on the state of the Brigantes, said to be the most prosperous in the entire province. There were many battles, some by no means bloodless, and his conquests, or at least his wars, embraced a large part of the territory of the Brigantes. Indeed he would have altogether thrown into the shade the activity and renown of any other successor; but Julius Frontinus was equal to the burden, a great man as far as greatness was then possible, who subdued by his arms the powerful and warlike tribe of the Silures, surmounting the difficulties of the country as well as the valour of the enemy.
18	Hunc Britanniae statum , has bellorum vices media iam aestate transgressus Agricola invenit , cum et milites velut omissa expeditione ad securitatem et hostes ad occasionem verterentur . Ordovicum civitas haud multo ante adventum eius alam in finibus suis agentem prope universam obtriverat , eoque initio erecta provincia . et quibus bellum volentibus erat , probare exemplum ac recentis legati animum opperiri , cum Agricola , quamquam transvecta aestas , sparsi per provinciam numeri , praesumpta apud militem illius anni quies , tarda et contraria bellum incohaturo , et plerisque custodiri suspecta potius videbatur , ire obviam discrimini statuit ; contractisque legionum vexillis et modica auxiliorum manu , quia in aequum degredi Ordovices non audebant , ipse ante agmen , quo ceteris par animus simili periculo esset , erexit aciem . caesaque prope universa gente , non ignarus instandum famae ac , prout prima cessissent , terrorem ceteris fore , Monam insulam , a cuius possessione revocatum Paulinum rebellione totius Britanniae supra memoravi , redigere in potestatem animo intendit . sed , ut in subitis consiliis , naves deerant : ratio et constantia ducis transvexit . depositis omnibus sarcinis lectissimos auxiliarium , quibus nota vada et patrius nandi usus , quo simul seque et arma et equos regunt , ita repente inmisit , ut obstupefacti hostes , qui classem , qui navis , qui mare expectabant , nihil arduum aut invictum crediderint sic ad bellum venientibus . ita petita pace ac dedita insula clarus ac magnus haberi Agricola , quippe cui ingredienti provinciam , quod tempus alii per ostentationem et officiorum ambitum transigunt , labor et periculum placuisset . nec Agricola prosperitate rerum in vanitatem usus , expeditionem aut victoriam vocabat victos continuisse ; ne laureatis quidem gesta prosecutus est , sed ipsa dissimulatione famae famam auxit , aestimantibus quanta futuri spe tam magna tacuisset .	Such was the state of Britain, and such were the vicissitudes of the war, which Agricola found on his crossing over about midsummer. Our soldiers made it a pretext for care- lessness, as if all fighting was over, and the enemy were biding their time. The Ordovices, shortly before Agricola's arrival, had destroyed nearly the whole of a squadron of allied cavalry quartered in their territory. Such a beginning raised the hopes of the country, and all who wished for war approved the precedent, and anxiously watched the temper of the new governor. Meanwhile Agricola, though summer was past and the detachments were scattered throughout the province, though the soldiers' confident anticipation of inaction for that year would be a source of delay and difficulty in beginning a campaign, and most advisers thought it best simply to watch all weak points, resolved to face the peril. He collected a force of veterans and a small body of auxiliaries; then as the Ordovices would not venture to descend into the plain, he put himself in front of the ranks to inspire all with the same courage against a common danger, and led his troops up a hill. The tribe was all but exterminated. Well aware that he must follow up the prestige of his arms, and that in proportion to his first success would be the terror of the other tribes, he formed the design of subjugating the island of Mona, from the occupation of which Paullinus had been recalled, as I have already related, by the rebellion of the entire province. But, as his plans were not matured, he had no fleet. The skill and resolution of the general accomplished the passage. With some picked men of the auxiliaries, disencumbered of all baggage, who knew the shallows and had that national experience in swimming which enables the Britons to take care not only of themselves but of their arms and horses, he delivered so unexpected an attack that the astonished enemy who were looking for a fleet, a naval armament, and an assault by sea, thought that to such assailants nothing could be formidable or invincible. And so, peace having been sued for and the island given up, Agricola became great and famous as one who, when entering on his province, a time which others spend in vain display and a round of ceremonies, chose rather toil and danger. Nor did he use his success for self-glorification, or apply the name of campaigns and victories to the repression of a conquered people. He did not even describe his achievements in a laurelled letter. Yet by thus disguising his renown he really increased it, for men inferred the grandeur of his aspirations from his silence about services so great.
19	Ceterum animorum provinciae prudens , simulque doctus per aliena experimenta parum profici armis , si iniuriae sequerentur , causas bellorum statuit excidere . a se suisque orsus primum domum suam coe + rcuit , quod plerisque haud minus arduum est quam provinciam regere . nihil per libertos servosque publicae rei , non studiis privatis nec ex commendatione aut precibus centurionem militesve adscire , sed optimum quemque fidissimum putare . omnia scire , non omnia exsequi . parvis peccatis veniam , magnis severitatem commodare ; nec poena semper , sed saepius paenitentia contentus esse ; officiis et administrationibus potius non peccaturos praeponere , quam damnare cum peccassent . frumenti et tributorum exactionem aequalitate munerum mollire , circumcisis quae in quaestum reperta ipso tributo gravius tolerabantur . namque per ludibrium adsidere clausis horreis et emere ultro frumenta ac luere pretio cogebantur . divortia itinerum et longinquitas regionum indicebatur , ut civitates proximis hibernis in remota et avia deferrent , donec quod omnibus in promptu erat paucis lucrosum fieret .	Next, with thorough insight into the feelings of his province, and taught also, by the experience of others, that little is gained by conquest if followed by oppression, he determined to root out the causes of war. Beginning first with himself and his dependants, he kept his household under restraint, a thing as hard to many as ruling a province. He transacted no public business through freedmen or slaves; no private leanings, no recommendations or entreaties of friends, moved him in the selection of centurions and soldiers, but it was ever the best man whom he thought most trustworthy. He knew everything, but did not always act on his knowledge. Trifling errors he treated with leniency, serious offences with severity. Nor was it always punishment, but far oftener penitence, which satisfied him. He preferred to give office and power to men who would not transgress, rather than have to condemn a transgressor. He lightened the exaction of corn and tribute by an equal distribution of the burden, while he got rid of those contrivances for gain which were more intolerable than the tribute itself. Hitherto the people had been compelled to endure the farce of waiting by the closed granary and of purchasing corn unnecessarily and raising it to a fictitious price. Difficult byroads and distant places were fixed for them, so that states with a winter-camp close to them had to carry corn to remote and inaccessible parts of the country, until what was within the reach of all became a source of profit to the few.
20	Haec primo statim anno comprimendo egregiam famam paci circumdedit , quae vel incuria vel intolerantia priorum haud minus quam bellum timebatur . sed ubi aestas advenit , contracto exercitu multus in agmine , laudare modestiam , disiectos coe + rcere ; loca castris ipse capere , aestuaria ac silvas ipse praetemptare ; et nihil interim apud hostis quietum pati , quo minus subitis excursibus popularetur ; atque ubi satis terruerat , parcendo rursus invitamenta pacis ostentare . quibus rebus multae civitates , quae in illum diem ex aequo egerant , datis obsidibus iram posuere et praesidiis castellisque circumdatae , et tanta ratione curaque , ut nulla ante Britanniae nova pars pariter inlacessita transierit .	Agricola, by the repression of these abuses in his very first year of office, restored to peace its good name, when, from either the indifference or the harshness of his predecessors, it had come to be as much dreaded as war. When, however, summer came, assembling his forces, he continually showed himself in the ranks, praised good discipline, and kept the stragglers in order. He would himself choose the position of the camp, himself explore the estuaries and forests. Meanwhile he would allow the enemy no rest, laying waste his territory with sudden incursions, and, having sufficiently alarmed him, would then by forbearance display the allurements of peace. In consequence, many states, which up to that time had been independent, gave hostages, and laid aside their animosities; garrisons and forts were established among them with a skill and diligence with which no newly-acquired part of Britain had before been treated.
21	Sequens hiems saluberrimis consiliis absumpta . namque ut homines dispersi ac rudes eoque in bella faciles quieti et otio per voluptates adsuescerent , hortari privatim , adiuvare publice , ut templa fora domos extruerent , laudando promptos , castigando segnis : ita honoris aemulatio pro necessitate erat . iam vero principum filios liberalibus artibus erudire , et ingenia Britannorum studiis Gallorum anteferre , ut qui modo linguam Romanam abnuebant , eloquentiam concupiscerent . inde etiam habitus nostri honor et frequens toga ; paulatimque discessum ad delenimenta vitiorum , porticus et balinea et conviviorum elegantiam . idque apud imperitos humanitas vocabatur , cum pars servitutis esset .	The following winter passed without disturbance, and was employed in salutary measures. For, to accustom to rest and repose through the charms of luxury a population scattered and barbarous and therefore inclined to war, Agricola gave private encouragement and public aid to the building of temples, courts of justice and dwelling-houses, praising the energetic, and reproving the indolent. Thus an honourable rivalry took the place of compulsion. He likewise provided a liberal education for the sons of the chiefs, and showed such a preference for the natural powers of the Britons over the industry of the Gauls that they who lately disdained the tongue of Rome now coveted its eloquence. Hence, too, a liking sprang up for our style of dress, and the "toga" became fashionable. Step by step they were led to things which dispose to vice, the lounge, the bath, the elegant banquet. All this in their ignorance, they called civilization, when it was but a part of their servitude.
22	Tertius expeditionum annus novas gentis aperuit , vastatis usque ad Tanaum ( aestuario nomen est ) nationibus . qua formidine territi hostes quamquam conflictatum saevis tempestatibus exercitum lacessere non ausi ; ponendisque insuper castellis spatium fuit . adnotabant periti non alium ducem opportunitates locorum sapientius legisse . nullum ab Agricola positum castellum aut vi hostium expugnatum aut pactione ac fuga desertum ; nam adversus moras obsidionis annuis copiis firmabantur . ita intrepida ibi hiems , crebrae eruptiones et sibi quisque praesidio , inritis hostibus eoque desperantibus , quia soliti plerumque damna aestatis hibernis eventibus pensare tum aestate atque hieme iuxta pellebantur . nec Agricola umquam per alios gesta avidus intercepit : seu centurio seu praefectus incorruptum facti testem habebat . apud quosdam acerbior in conviciis narrabatur ; et ut erat comis bonis , ita adversus malos iniucundus . ceterum ex iracundia nihil supererat secretum , ut silentium eius non timeres : honestius putabat offendere quam odisse .	The third year of his campaigns opened up new tribes, our ravages on the native population being carried as far as the Taus, an estuary so called. This struck such terror into the enemy that he did not dare to attack our army, harassed though it was by violent storms; and there was even time for the erection of forts. It was noted by experienced officers that no general had ever shown more judgment in choosing suitable positions, and that not a single fort established by Agricola was either stormed by the enemy or abandoned by capitulation or flight. Sorties were continually made; for these positions were secured from protracted siege by a year's supply. So winter brought with it no alarms, and each garrison could hold its own, as the baffled and despairing enemy, who had been accustomed often to repair his summer losses by winter successes, found himself repelled alike both in summer and winter. Never did Agricola in a greedy spirit appropriate the achievements of others; the centurion and the prefect both found in him an impartial witness of their every action. Some persons used to say that he was too harsh in his reproofs, and that he was as severe to the bad as he was gentle to the good. But his displeasure left nothing behind it; reserve and silence in him were not to be dreaded. He thought it better to show anger than to cherish hatred.